


O y n o *V) 



^ 




'* ■> 



,*« ^ A* *jg|j^. ^. A* 

^ " iff ! fj^ " v^ v 

e^^V ^^Eiill^ A^"^ oWS?tttf» A</\. 



>, * . i o »* V* 
v - 













«V A i 



7. * * A 



•> 







% ■> 















• A «>«. 

» NT 














o°" °. 



;• ,/ ^ -^ 

.V » « « •£. 







^ * o M o ° ^ 

> V * 

















**V\ ~*o 



° * A 

i. cvv\\\n'«. <r 






SMITH'S NEW GRAMMAR. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



OX THE 



PRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: 



1 METHOD OF INSTRUCTION RECENTLY ADOPTED IN GERMAN! 
AND SWITZERLAND. 



§t$i$m& tw <^rit00ls m& QwAmltg. 



ROSWELL C. SMITH, 

AUTHOR OF A PRACTICAL AND MENTAL ARITHMETIC, 
ETC. "ETC. 



J t ; 

Revised Edition. 



PHILADELPHIA: 
PUBLISHED BY J. H. BUTLER & CO. 

1877. 






Entered according to Act of Congress. \n the year 186o> by Roswell C. Smith, 
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. 

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1860, by Roswell C. Smith, 
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Connecticut. 



Entered aocording to A.ct ot Congress, in the year 1866, by 

E. H. BUTLER & CO. 

In ttd Clerk's Office of the District Courw i*. the Eastern District 01 Peaneylvania. 



PUBLISHERS' ADVERTISEMENT. 



Smith's English Grammar has been before the public 
many years. During all this time it has received a very 
general approval from teachers, and friends of education, 
in all parts of the United States. It is believed that this 
book, after a sale of millions of copies, is now more highly 
esteemed by teachers than at any other time since its first 
publication. In electrotyping it anew for the present 
edition, opportunity has been taken to have the work 
carefully revised, with a view to make it more adequately 
represent the present advanced state of the science. The 
confident hope is entertained that as a text-book it will 
continue to find the general favor and approval it haa 
hitherto enjoyed. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGB 

Nouns 7 

Number 7 

Gender 8 

Proper and Common Nouns 9 

Person 10 

Case 10 

Articles 13 

Adjectives 15 

Pronouns 17 

Verbs 20 

Indicative Mood — Tense 23 

Potential Mood 28 

Neuter Verb "To be" 31 

Adverbs 33 

Prepositions 35 

Conjunctions : 36 

Interjections 39 

Orthography 41 

Etymology 41 

Syntax 42 

Nouns 42 

Person 43 

Gender 43 

Number « 45 

Case 47 

Declension of Nouns 47 

Articles 49 

Adjectives 51 

Pronouns 53 

1* 5 



6 CONTENTS. 

PACH 

Compound Personal Pronouns 54 

Adjective Pronouns 55 

Distributive Pronouns 56 

Indefinite Pronouns 56 

Relative Pronouns 58 

Compound and Interrogative Pronouns 60 

Verbs 62 

Mood or Mode 63 

Tense 66 

Passive Verb 68 

Auxiliary Verb 69 

Signs of the Moods 69 

Signs of the Tenses of the Indicative 70 

Conjugation of Verbs 71 

Irregular Verbs 80 

Government of the Infinitive 83 

Defective Verbs 90 

Adverbs 92 

Prepositions 93 

Conjunctions 94 

Interjections 95 

Agreement of Nouns 96 

Nouns used independently 99 

Infinitive Mood 100 

Exercises 102 

Words used as different parts of Speech *... 109 

Contractions 112 

Inverted Sentences 114 

Syntax 117 

Prosody 187 

Pronunciation 187 

Versification 187 

Poetical Feet 188 

Punctuation 188 

Capital Letters 192 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



I. OF THE NOUN. 



Q. What is your name ? 

Q. What is the name of the town in which you live ? 

Q. What does the word noun mean? 

Jlns. The word noun means name. 

Q. What, then, may your name be called? 

1. A NOUN. 

Q. What may all names be called? 

2. Nouns. 

Q. Boston is the name of a place % is Boston a noun ? and if so, why ? 

3. Boston is a noun, because it is a name. 

Q. Hudson is the name of a river : is Hudson a noun, and why ? 

Q. Book is the name of something to read in : is book a noun, and why ? 

Q. Will you now inform me what a noun is ? 

4. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing. 

Q. Will you mention two nouns the names of persons ? two, the names 
of things ? two, the names of different places ? 

Q. Will you tell me which words are the nouns in the following sen- 
tences, as I read them to you ? 

" Thomas and Joseph are in the house/' 

" The horse and cow are in the lot." 

" The hawk and the eagle have flown to the mountain." 

" Trees, corn, potatoes and apples grow in the fields." 



II. NUMBER. 

Q. What is the meaning of the word number ; as, " The number of but- 
tons on your coat?" 

5. Number means one or more. 

Q. What does the word singular mean? 

6. It means one. 

Q. When, then, I speak of one thing only, as chair, what number is it? 

7. Singular number. 

Q. What, then, does the singular number of nouns denote ? 

8. The singular number denotes but one thing. 

(7) 



8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. Of what number is look, and why ? 

9. Book is of the singular number, because it means 
but one. 

9: ^u wh ? number is cAazr, and why ? 
C^. What does the word plural mean? 

10. It means more than one. 

Q. Of what number is lamps, and why? 

11. Lamps is of the plural number, because it means 
more than one. 

Q. Of what number is inkstand, and why 1 
How then, is the plural number of nouns usually formed ? 

M. By adding 5 or 65 to the singular. 
*£r dS£7 2$*a F lural ° f °^ ce ? 8lass ? window ? theatre ? ant ™' 

Q. _ How many numbers do nouns appear to have, and what are they? 

Id. Iwo, the singular and plural. 
numbeT? 11 y ° U "^ a n ° ,m ° f the sin S uIar number? one of the plural 



III. GENDER. 

Q. What does the word gender mean ? 

14. Gender signifies sex. 

Q. Whai: does the word masculine >ean? 

15. It means male. 

?« J %Vu* name ° f > male : of what S ender or sex > ^en, is John ? 

lb. Ul the masculine or male gender. 

?1 W £f nouns ' then ' are Mi d to be of the masculine gender? 

17. ine names of males. 

Q- W J at gender, then, is man, and why ? 

18. Man is of the masculine gender, because it is the 
name of a male. 

?>' wk^ ge l deT - is W7 * cZe ' and why?/ a ^ er ? why? 
V- What does feminine mean? 

19. It means female. 

Q. Susan is the name of a female : of what gender, then, is Susan ? 

*u. ut the feminine gender. 

Q. What nouns, then are said to be of the feminine gender? 

*1. 1 he names of females. 

Q. What gender is woman, and why ? 

22. JTcwum i s f the feminine gender, because it is the 
name of a female. 

9)' wl™ 11 ? 2 ei \ der is «»**. and why ? daughter ? why ? 
V. What does the word neuter mean? 

23. It means neither. 
TO a?-it?ri^ h be n calle e dT ither ° f " ^ n0r * femaIe ' what * ender ' then - 

24. Neuter gender. 

Q. What nouns, then, may be said to be of the neuter gender ? 



NOUNS 9 

25 The names of objects that are neither males nor 
females. 

Q. Of what gender is inkstand, and why ? 

26. Neuter gender, because it is the name neither of a 
male nor female. 

Q. Of what gender is bench ? why ? chair ? why ? 

Q. Parent, you know, is the name either of father or mother, that is, it 
is a name common to both : of what gender, then, shall we call such nouna 
as parent, bird, &c. ? 

27. Common gender. 

Q. What nouns, then, may be said to be of the common gender ? 

28. The names of such animals as may be either males 
or females. 

Q. Of what gender is sheep, and why ? 

29. Sheep is of the common gender, because it is the 
name either of a male or female. 

Q. Of what gender is robin, and why ? 

Q. How many genders do nouns appear to have, and what are they ? 

30. Four — the masculine, the feminine, the neuter, and 
the common. 

Q. Will you name a noun of the masculine gender ? one of the feminine? 
one of the neuter ? one of the common ? 

Q. Will you name the gender and number of each noun in the following 
sentences, as I read them to you ? 

" James and William." " Slate and pencil." 

" John and the girls." " Women and birds." 



IV. PROPER AND COMMON NOUNS. 

Q. What is the meaning of the word common ; as, " A common com- 
plaint?" 

31. Common means general. 

Q. Although there are a vast many male children in the world, each one 
may be called by the general name of boy : what kind of a noun, then, 
would you call boy? 

32. A common noun. 

Q. When, then, is a noun called common? 

33. When it is a general name. 

Q. What does the word proper mean ? 

34. It means fit or particular. 

Q. John, you know, is the particular name of a boy : what kind of 
aoun, then, may it be called ? 

35. A proper noun. 

Q. When, then, may a noun be called proper? 

36. When it is a particular name. 

Q. What kind of a noun is Susan, and why ? 

37. Susan is a proper noun, because it is a particular 
name. 

Q. What kind of a noun is John, and why ? 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. What kind of a noun is river, and why ? 

38. River is a common noun, because it is a general 
name. 

Q. How many kinds of nouns do there appear to be, and what are they ? 

Q. What kind of a noun is girls ? Mary ? town ? New York ? London ? 
boat ? chain ? 

Q. Will you now tell me which words are the nouns in the following sen- 
tences ; which are proper, and which common ; also their gender and number f 

" Thomas and John." " King and queen." 

" Susan and Mary." " House and barn." 



V. PERSON. 

Q. When a person, in speaking, says, " I, John, will do it," what person 
tto grammarians call John ? 

39. The first person. 

Q. When, then, is a noun of the first person? 

40. When it is the name of the person speaking. 

Q. When I say, " James, mind your studies," what person do gram- 
marians call James ? 

41. The second person, being the person spoken to. 

Q. When, then, is a noun of the second person ? 

42. When it is the name of the person spoken to, or 
addressed. 

Q. " William, James has come." What person is William, and why ? 

43. Of the second person, because William is spoken 
to. 

Q. When I say, " William, James has come," I am speaking to William 
about James : of what person, then, is James, and why ? 

44. Of the third person, because James was spoken 
of; that is, I was talking about James. 

Q. When, then, is a noun of the third person ? 

45. When it is spoken of. 

Q. " Thomas, Rufus is in the garden." What person is Thomas ? why ? 
is Rufus ? why ? 

Q. How many persons do nouns appear to have, and what are they ? 

46. Three persons — the first, second, and third. 

Q. Will you inform me which of the following nouns are proper, which 
common ; also their gender, number, and person? 
" I, James, of Boston." "Boy and girl." 

" Henry, study your book." " William and his sister." 



VI. CASE. 

Q. We say of an animal, for instance a horse, when he is fat, that " He 
is in a good case ;" and, when he is lean, that " He is in a bad case ;" what, 
therefore, does the word case mean ? 

47. Case means condition, state, &c. 



CASES. 11 

Q. When I say, u Charles strikes William," " William strikes Charles," 
you may perceive that the state or condition of Charles in the former example 
is quite different from his state or condition in the latter : in the one, Charles 
strikes ; in the other, he is struck : what, then, is meant by the different 
cases of nouns ? 

48. The different condition or position they have in 
relation to other words in the same sentence. 

Q. What does the word nominative mean? 

49. Nominative means naming. 

Q. When I say, "John strikes," he evidently does something: what, 
then, may John be called ? 

50. An actor or doer. 

Q. Well, then, as the actor or doer is considered the naming or leading 
Boun, in what case is John, when I say, M John strikes ?" 

51. In the nominative case. 

Q. What, then, is the nominative case of nouns ? 

52. The nominative case is the agent or doer. 

Q. When I say, " The dog runs," in what case is dog, and why ? 

53. Dog is in the nominative case, because it is the 
agent, actor, or doer. 

Q. " The cat catches mice." In what case is cat, and why ? 
Q. When I say, " Thomas is pursuing the thief," what is the object 
here which Thomas is pursuing? 

54. Thief. 

Q. What does the word objective mean ? 

55. It means belonging to the object 

Q. In what case, then, may thief be reckoned, in the Dhrase, " Thomas 
pursues the thief?" 

56. In the objective case. 

Q. What, then, does the objective case denote ? 

57. The objective case denotes the object. 

Q. When I say, " William whips John," in what case is John, and why ? 

58. In the objective case, because John is the object, 

Q. What does the word possessive imply ? 

59. Possession, ownership, property, &c. 

Q. When I say, " It is John's slate," I mean to say that John owns the 
slate : in what case, then, shall we reckon John's ? 

60. In the possessive case. 

Q. What, then, does the possessive case of nouns denote ? 

61. The possessive case denotes possession, property, 
&c. 

Q. When I say, " Peter's knife," who owns or possesses the knife ? 
Q. In what case, then, is Peter's, and why ? 

62. In the possessive case, because Peter possesses the 
knife. 

Q. In the example " John's slate," you perceive that John's ends in *, 
with a comma before it : what is the comma, and what is the s, called in 
grammar ? 

63. The comma is called an apostrophe, and the s, an 
apostrophic s. 

Q. You also perceive that John's is singular : how, then, do nouns in the 
singular number usually form their possessive case ? 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

64. By taking after them an apostrophe with the letter s 
following it. 

Q. "On eagles' wings." Here eagles 1 is plural, and in the possessive 
ease : how, then, do nouns in the plural usually form their possessive case ? 

65. Simply by taking the apostrophe without the addi- 
tion of s. 

Q. But if the plural noun does not end in s, as, " men's concerns/' how 
is the possessive case formed ? 

66. As the same case in the singular number is formed. 

Q. From the foregoing remarks, how many cases do nouns appear to 
have, and what are they ? 

67. Three — the nominative, possessive, and objective. 

Q. Decline sometimes means to vary the endings of a word : what, then, 
do I mean when I ask you to decline a noun ? 

68. To tell its different cases or endings. 

Q. Will you decline John? 

69. Nominative case, John. 
Possessive case, John's. 

Objective case, John* 

Q. Will you decline boy, in both numbers? 

Singular. Plural. 

70. Nom. Boy. JVom. Boys. 

Poss. Boy's. Poss. Boys'. 

Obj. Boy. Obj. Boys. 

Q. When I say, " William's coat," you perceive that the noun coat fol- 
lows William's : by what is William's said to be governed, and why ? 

71. By coat, because it follows William 9 s. 

Q. What, then, may be considered a rule for governing thepossessive 
case? 

RULE X. 

The possessive case is governed by the following 

noun. 

Q. " William's hat." Is William's a proper or common noun ? Why ? 
(36.)* 

Q. What is its person ? why ? (45.)* Its number ? why ? (8.)* Its gen- 
der ? why ? (17.)* Its case ? why ? (61.)* What noun follows William's ? 
What word, then, governs William's ? What is the rule ? 

Q. When we mention the several properties of the different words in 
sentences, in the same manner as we have those of William's, above, what 
is the exercise called ? 

72. Parsing. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
" John's knife." 

73. John's is a noun, because it is a name — proper, be- 
cause it is a particular name — masculine gender ; it is the 
name of a male — third person ; it is spoken of — singular 

* Refer back to this number. 



ARTICLES. 13 

number; it means but one — possessive case,- it implies 
possession. — and it is governed by the noun knife, accord- 
ing to 

Rule I. The possessive case is governed by the following 
noun. 

Knife is a noun ; it is a name — common ; it is a genera! 
name — neuter gender ; it is neither male nor female — 
third person ; it is spoken of — singular number ; it means 
but one. 

&CT Let the learner parse the foregoing, till the mode of parsing the 
noun is so familiar to him, that he can do it readily, without looking in the 
look. He may then take the following exercises, which are to be parsed in a 
similar manner. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

" Peter's cap." " Stephen's coat." " Brother's knife." 

" John's slats." " Father's house." " Boys' hats." 



VII. OF ARTICLES. 

Q. When I say, " Give me a book," I evidently mean no particular book , 
but when I say, " Give me the book," what do I mean? 

74. Some particular book. 

Q. Whieh are the words that make this difference in meaning? 

75. A and the. 

Q. What are these little words called? 
-76. Articles. 

0. What, then, are articles? 

77. Articles are words placed before nouns to limit 
their meaning. 

Q. What is the meaning of the word definite ? 

78. Definite means particular. 

Q. " Give me the book." Here a particular book is referred to: what 
kind of an article, then, shall we call the? 

79. Definite article. 

Q. What, then, is a definite article ? 

80. It points out what particular thing or things are 
meant. 

Q. The word in, when placed before words, frequently signifies not: 
what, then, will indefinite mean? 

81. Not definite. 

Q. When 1 say, " Give me a knife," no particular knife is meant: what 
kind of an article, then, may a be called? 

82. Indefinite article. 

Q. Why is it so called ? 

83. Because it is not used before the name of any 
particular person or thing. 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. We say, "an apple," "aw inkstand," &c. in preference to "aapple," 
" a inkstand," &c. : why is this ? 

84. Because it is easier to speak, and also more plea- 
sant to the ear. 

Q. What kind of letters do apple and inkstand begin with ? 

85. Vowels. 

Q. In what cases do we use an instead of a ? 

86. Before words beginning with the vowels a, e> i, 
o, u. 

Q. In speaking, we say, " a man," not "an man:" when, then, do we 
me a? 

87. Before words beginning with consonants. 

. Q. Which letters are consonants? 

88. All the letters of the alphabet, except the vowels, 
which are a, e, i, o, u ; and also to and y, except at the 
beginning of words, when they are consonants. 

Q. How, then, do a and an differ? 

89. Only in their use ; a being used before consonants, 
and an before vowels : both are called by the same name. 

Q. How many articles do there appear to be, and what are they ? 

90. Two — a or an, and the. 

Q. It is customary to say, 4< a boy," not " a boys , " also, " an inkstand," 
not "an inkstands .•" of what number, then, must the noun be, before 
which the indefinite article is placed ? 

91. The singular number 

Q. What, then, is the rule for the indefinite article? 

RULZ XX. 

The indefinite article a or an belongs to nouns of 
the singular number. 

Q. We can say, " the boy," and " the boys ;" using a noun either of the 
singular or plural number after the : what, then, is the rule for the definite 
article ? 

RTyXiIJ XXX. 

The definite article the belongs to nouns in the 
singular or plural number. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
" The boyr 

92. The is an article, a word placed before nouns to limit 
their meaning — definite ; it means a particular boy — and 
belongs to boy, according to 

Rule III. The definite article the belongs to nouns of the 
singular or plural number. 

Boy is a noun; it is a name — common; it is a general 
name — masculine gender ; it is the name of a male — third 
person; it is spoken of — and singular number, it means 
but one. 



ADJECTIVES. 15 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED- 

" A hand." " An eagle." " The man." " The boys' hats." 

" A man." " An insect." " The men." " A man's cap." 

" A mite." " An acorn." » The boys." " The girls' room." 

" A month." " An ounce." " The mice." " The lady's box." 



VIII. OF ADJECTIVES. 

Q. When I say, " John is an obedient, industrious, and good boy," I 
use certain words to describe hoy : which are they ? 

93. Industrious, obedient, and good. 

Q. When I say, "a good man," to what word is the describing word 
good joined or added ? 

94. To the noun man. 

Q. What does the word adjective mean? 

95. Joined or added to. 

Q. What, then, shall we call such describing words as good, obedient^ 
industrious, &c. ? 

96. Adjectives. 

Q. What, then, are adjectives ? 

97. Adjectives are words joined to nouns to describe 
or qualify them. 

Q. " A wise man." Which word is the adjective here, and why ? 
Q. " Rufus is a good boy, but James is a better one." How are Rufus 
and James spoken of here ? 

98. In comparison with each other. 

Q. The adjectives in the last example are good and better : can you tell 
me which of these words denotes a higher degree of excellence than the 
other ? 

99. The word better. 

Q. What degree of comparison, then, shall we call better? 

100. Comparative degree. 

Q. What, then, does the comparative degree imply ? 

101. A comparison between two. 

Q. " William is tall, Thomas is taller, but Rufus is the tallest boy in 
school." What is meant here by tallest ? 

102. Exceeding all in height. 

Q. What does the word superlative mean ? 

103. Exceeding all ; the highest or lowest degree. 

Q. What degree of comparison, then, shall we call tallest ? 

104. Superlative degree. 

Q. What, then, does the superlative degree do ? 

105. It increases or lessens the positive to the highest 
or lowest degree. 

Q. When I say, " James is a good boy," I make no comparison between 
him and any other ; but simply assert in a positive manner, that James is a 
good boy. What kind of a sentence, then, would you call this? 

106. A positive sentence. 

Q. Of what degree of comparison, then, shall we call good? 

107. The positive degree. 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR- 

Q. What, then, does the positive degree do? 

108. It merely describes, without any comparison. 

Q. Will you compare great ? 

109. " Positive, great ; Comparative, greater; Superla* 
tive, greatest." 

Q. Will you compare wise in the same manner? 
Q. Wise and great are words of one syllable : how, then, are the corn* 
parative and superlative degrees of words of this sort formed ? 

110. By adding r or er 9 st or est, to the positive. 

Q. Will you in this manner compare small ? high ? mean ? 
Q. Will you compare beautiful ? . 

111. " Pos. beautiful; Comp. more beautiful; Sup. most 
beautiful." 

Q. How many syllables compose the word beautiful? 

112. Three. 

Q. How, then, are words of three, or more syllables than one, usually 
compared ? 

113. By placing more and most before the positive. 

Q. Will you in this manner compare industrious ? ingenious ? dutiful ? 
Q. Will you compare wise, by using the words less and least ? 

114. "Pos. wise; Comp. less wise; Sup. least wise." 

Q. Will you in like manner compare benevolent 1 distinguished ? dilatory? 

Q. " Good men, better men, best men." Which adjective here is the 
positive, and why? (108.) Which the comparative? why? (101.) Which 
the superlative? why? (105.) 

Q. Goody you perceive, is not compared regularly, like great, beautiful, 
&.c. ; and since there are many words of this description, I will give you a 
list of the principal ones, together with others, regularly compared : will you 
repeat the comparative and superlative degrees, as I name the positive ? 

115. Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Good, Better, Best. 

Little, Less, Least. 

Much, or many, More, Most. 

Bad, ill, or evil, Worse, Worst. 

Near, Nearer, Nearest, or next. 

Old, Older, Oldest, or eldest. 

Late, Later, Latest, or last. 

Q. From the foregoing, how many degrees of comparison do there appear 
to be, and what are they ? 

116. Three — the positive, comparative, and superlative. 

Q. Adjectives, you recollect, describe nouns: to what, then, do they 
naturally belong ? 

HXJLE IV. 

Adjectives belong to the nouns which they describe- 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
" A wiser child." 

117. A is an article, a word placed before nouns to limit 
their meaning — indefinite ; it means no particular child — 
and belongs to child, agreeably to 

Rule II. The indefinite article a or an belongs to nouns of 
the singular number. 



PRONOUNS. 1? 

Wiser is an adjective, a word joined with a noun to 
describe it — " Pos. wise ; Comp. wiser; Sup. wisest" — made 
m the comparative degree — and belongs to child, by 

Rule IV. Adjectives belong to the nouns which they de- 
scribe. 

Child is a noun, it is a name — common; it is a general 
name — common gender ; it may be either male orTemale — 
third person ; it is spoken of — and singular number ; it 
Tieans but one. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

1. 2. 3. 

''* A dutiful son." " An ugly child." " The base man." 

" An idle boy." " An irksome task." " The whiter cloth." 
;< A foolish son." " A mild reply." 4S The milder weather." 

4 5. 

" The greatest man." " The more (1) benevolent citizen." 

" The wisest prince." " The most (1) suitable method." 

" The noblest man." " The least (1) distrustful friend." 

6. 7. 

M A large, convenient, and (1) " The last choice." 

airy habitation." " Tfce best man." 

" The intelligent, industrious, " The nearest relations." 

obedient, and (1) docile " Johnson's (2) large dictionary." 
scholar." " Murray's small grammar." 



IX. OF PRONOUNS. 

Q. When I say, " John goes to school, John learns fast, and John will 
excel," how can I speak so as to avoid repeating John so often ? 

118. By using the word he in its place; thus, "John 
goes to school, he learns fast, and he will excel." 

Q. What little word, then, may stand for John ? 

119. He. 

Q. What does the word pronoun mean ? 

1 20. Standing for, or instead of, a noun. 

Q. What, then, shall we call the word he, above ? 

121. A PRONOUN. 

Q. What, then, is a pronoun ? 

122. A pronoun is a word used for a noun, to avoid a 
repetition of the same word. 

Q. When James says, " I will study," you perceive that / stands for the 
person speaking : what person, then, is it ? (39.) 

Q. When I say, " James, you must study," the word you evidently is 
applied to James, who is spoken to: what person, then, ought you to be* 

123. The second person. 

1. To be omitted in parsing. 2. Johnson's is governed by dictionary, by 
Hu'e T. 

B 2* 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. When I say, " He (meaning William) should learn," what person 
ought he to be, and why ? 

124. The third person ; because it stands in the plate 
of a noun which is spoken of. 

Q. If I invariably stands for the first person, you for the second, and jut 
for the third, how can we tell the different persons of pronouns? 

125. By the pronouns themselves. 

Q. What have these pronouns been called from this circumstance ? 

126. Personal pronouns. 

ftCr I will now give you a list of all the personal pronouns, which yor 
must first examine carefully, and then answer such questions on them as 
in ay be asked you. 

DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

FIRST PERSON. 

127. Sing. Plur. 

Nom. I. We. 

Poss. My or mine. Ours or our. 

Obj. Me. Us. 

SECOND PERSON. 

Sing. Sing. Plur. 

Nom. Thou. } C Nom. You. Ye or you. 

Poss. Thy or thine. \ or < Poss. Your or yours. Your or yours. 
Obj. Thee. ) ( Obj. You. You. 

THIRD PERSON MASCULINE. 

Sing. Plur. 

No?n. He. They. 

Poss. His. Theirs or their. 

Obj. Him. Them. 

THIRD PERSON FEMININE. 

Sing. Plur. 

Nom. She. They. 

Poss. Hers or her. Theirs or their. 

Obj. Her. Them. 

THIRD PERSON NEUTER. 

Sing. Plur. 

Nom. It. They. 

Poss. Its. Theirs or their. 

Obj. It. Them. 

Q. Will you decline Jin both numbers ? thou or you ? he? she ? it t 

Q. In what person, number, and case is I J we? my? mine? our at 
ours ? me? us? thou ? ye ? his ? they ? them ? 

Q. In what gender, person, number, and case is he ? she ? it ? his ? hers ? 
her ? him ? 

Q. How many numbers do pronouns appear to have, and what are they ? 

128. Two — the singular and plural. 

Q. How many cases, and what are they ? 

129. Three — the nominative, the possessive, and the 
objective. 



PRONOUNS. 19 

Q. How many persons? 

130. Three — the first, second, and third. 

Q. How many genders? 

131. Three — the masculine, feminine, and neuter. 

Q. How many pronouns are there in all, of the first person ? 
Q. How many of the second, and how many of the third ? 
Q. The pronouns of the nominative case, singular, are called leading 
pronouns : how many of these are there ? 

133. Five — 7, thou or you, he, she, it. 

Q. Why are not the possessive and objective cases of the singular and 
plural numbers, also the nominatives plural, reckoned in the number of the 
leading pronouns ? 

134. Because they are all considered as variations of 
the nominative singular. 

Q. To which of the pronouns is it customary to apply gender ? 

135. To the third person singular, he, she, it. 

Q. Why are not the first and second persons each made always tc repre- 
sent a different gender ? 

136. The first and second persons being always pre- 
sent, their genders are supposed to be known. 

Q. If, as we have seen, pronouns stand for nouns, what gender, number, 
and person ought they to have ? 

137. The same as the nouns for which they stand. 

Q. What, then, may be considered a rule for the agreement of the pro- 
nouns ? 

Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they 
stand, in gender, number, and person. 

QUESTIONS ON PARSING. 
Q. How many different sorts of words have we now found, and what 
are they ? 

138. Four — the Noun, the Article, the Adjective, 
and the Pronoun. 

Q. The word part, you know, means division ; and speech, the power of 
using words, or language : what, therefore, shall we call these grand divi- 
sions of words ? 

139. Parts of Speech. 

Q. When, then, I ask you what part of speech boy is, for instance, what 
do you understand me to mean ? 

140. The same as to ask me whether boy is a noun 
or not. 

Q. What part of speech, then, is William, and why ? (36.) 

1. "He went to school." 

2. " She went to her task." 

3. " William went to his play.' 

4. "John returned from his school." 

5. " I request you to mind your studies." 

6. " The book was mine, but now it is yours.** 
Q. Will you name the pronouns in the six foregoing examples ? 



Q. How many are there in all ? 



What is the gender, number, and person of those in the first ? second 1 
third? fourth? fifth? sixth? 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. What is the gender of /its, in the fourth sentence ? why ? (137.) Its 
number ? why ? (137.) Its person ? why ? (137.) Its case ? why ? (61.) 

Q. Will you name the nouns in the first sentence ? in the second ? third ? 
fourth? fifth? sixth? 



X. OF THE VERB. 

Q. When I say, " James strikes William/ ' which word tells what 
James does ? 

14 L Strikes. 

Q. The word verb means word ; and as the words in all sentences, which 
tell what the nouns do, are the principal ones, what shall such words be 
called ? 

142. Verbs. 

Q. If, in the phrase, "William strikes James," we leave out the word 
strikes, you perceive at once that the sense is destroyed : what reason, then, 
can you give, for calling some words in a sentence verbs, and others by a 
different name ? 

143. The words which we call verbs are the most 
important. 

Q. "William studies his lesson." Which word is the verb here, and 
why ? 

144. Studies, because it tells what William does. 

Q. When I say, " John dances," which word is the verb, and why ? 
Q. When I say, " James strikes John," which word shows that an 
action is performed ? 

145. Strikes. 

Q. What kind of a verb, then, shall we call strikes ? 

146. An active verb. 

Q. What kind of a verb is walks, in this sentence, " John walks," and 
why ? 

147. Walks is an active verb, because it expresses 
action* 

Q. "He beat William." Which word here is the verb? Is William 
an agent or an object ? 

148. An object. 

Q. When I say, " The child walks," walks, it is true, is an active verb, 
but it has no noun after it for an object, as beat has, in the phrase above ; 
neither can we supply one; for we cannot say, "The child walks," any 
thing: what, therefore, is to be inferred from this fact, in regard to the 
nature of active verbs ? 

149. That some active verbs will take nouns after them 
for objects, and others will not. 

Q. We will next notice this difference. The term transitive means pass- 
ing over ; arid when I say, " William whips Charles," the verb whips shows 
that the action which William performs, passes over to Charles as the object. 
What kind of a verb, then, shall we call whips ? 

150. An active-transitive verb. 

Q. What, then, is an active-transitive verb ? 

151. It is one that either has, or may have, an object 
after it. 

Q. Walks, we found, would not take an object after it ; and, as intransi- 
tive means not passing over, what shall we call such verbs as walks ? 



VERBS. 21 

152. Active-intransitive verbs. 

Q. What, then, is an active-intransitive verb ? 

153. An active-intransitive verb is one that expresses 
action, but will not take an object after it. 

Q. When I say, " He eats it," " He beats him," we immediately deter- 
mine that beats and eats are active-transitive verbs, by the objects after 
them : how, then, may transitive and intransitive verbs be distinguished? 

154. When we can place him or it after any active 
verb, and make sense, it is transitive; otherwise, it is 
intransitive. 

Q. " James remains at home — sleeps at home — is at home." Which 
words are the verbs here ? 

155. Remains, sleeps, and is, 

Q. These verbs do not imply action, like strikes, beats, &c. : what do 
they imply ? 

156. Existence, rest, or being, in a certain state. 

Q. These verbs, and others of similar character, have been called neuter 
^signifying neither) by grammarians, because they are neither active nor 
passive. On a future occasion, I will make you fully acquainted with a 
passive verb. It is sufficient for our present purpose, that you perceive the 
reason of the name of the neuter verb. What is a neuter verb ? 

157. A neuter verb is one that simply implies being or 
existence in a certain state. 

Q. Will you inform me now, in general terms, what is a correct defini- 
tion of a verb ? 

158. A verb is a word which signifies action or being. 

Q. When I say, " I strike," in what number and person is strike, and 
why? 

159. Strike is of the first person singular, because its 
agent, I, is of this person and number. 

Q. Hence you may perceive, that verbs, in themselves considered, do not 
have person and number: why, then, are they said to have ^hese properties 
at all I 

160. On account of the connection which they have 
with their agents or nominatives. 

Q. We say, " I write," and " He writes;" hence you perceive that the 
ending of the verb varies, as its agent or nominative varies : what, then, 
will be the rule for the nominative case ? 

RULE VI. 

The nominative case governs the verb in number 

and person. 

Q. If the nominative case governs the verb in number and person, in 
what respect must the verb agree with its nominative case ? 

RULE VII. 

A verb must agree with its nominative case in 
number and person. 

Q. When I say, " James beats him," the pronoun him is the object of 
the action denoted by beats, and is, therefore, in the objective case: what, 
then, will be a good rule for the objective case after active verbs ? 

HULE VIII. 

Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case. 



Vi ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. I will now give you the different endings of the verb love, in its dif- 
ferent numbers and persons. Will you repeat them ? 

Singular. Plural. 

161. First person, I love. First person, We love. 
Second person, You love. Second person, You love. 
Third person, He loves. Third person, They love, 

Q. Will you repeat the variations of am? 

Singular. Plural. 

162. 1 Pers. I am. 1 Pers. We are. 

2 Pers. You are. 2 Pers. You are. 

3 Pers. He is. 3 Pers. They are. 

Q. Will you repeat, in the same manner, the variations of hate? desire t 
tread? 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
" / study my lesson" 

163. J is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — per- 
ponal; it always denotes the same person, (the first) — first 
person; it denotes the speaker — singular number; it 
means but one — " Nom. I" — made in the nominative case 
to study, according to 

Rule VI. The nominative case governs the verb in number 
and person. 

Study is a verb ; it expresses action — transitive ; it ad- 
mits an object after it — " 1 Pers. I study" — made in the 
first person — singular number, because its nominative 1 
is, with which it agrees, agreeably to 

Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in 
number and person. 

My is a pronoun, a word used for a noun — personal ; it 
always represents the same person — first person ; it repre- 
sents the person speaking — " Nom. I , Poss. my, or mine" — 
made in the possessive case - and governed by the noun 
lesson, according to 

Rule I. The possessive cast is governed by the following 
noun. 

Lesson is a noun — common ; it is a general name — neuter 
gender ; it is neither male nor female — third person; it is 
spoken of — singular number ; it means but one — and in the 
objective case ; it is the object of the verb study, and 
governed by it, according to 

Rule VIII. Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case, 

exercises in parsing continued. 

Transitive Verbs. 

M I lament my fate." " He found a dollar." 

44 You regard your friends." " She attends the schooi." 

" We desire your improvement." " It retards the work." 

" We love our children." " They shun vice." 

" You make a knife." « Xq derive comfort.'' 



VERBS. 23 

2. 

" I love him." " She forsook you." 

44 I lament her." " They annoy me." 

44 You assist them." " We took it." 

" He struck her." " She relieved us." 

" John reads his book." 

His is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — per- 
sonal ; it uniformly stands for the same person — masculine 

GENDER, THIRD PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, because the nOUIl 

John is, with which it agrees, agreeably to 

Rule V. Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which 
they stand, in gender, number, and person. 

" Nom. he; Poss. his" — made in the possessive case — * 
and governed by the noun book, according to 

Rule I. The possessive case is governed by the following 
noun. 

ilJ-The remaining words, book, reads, and JoJtn, are parsed as before. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

3. 

44 Mary studies her lesson." " Virtue rewards its followers." 

" The girls love their books." "A disobedient son grieves his 

M Good children mind their parents." 

parents." " The intemperate man loves his 

* Sin deceives its votaries." dram." 

X^rln parsing personal pronouns, we do not apply Rule V. unless the nouns for 
irhich they stand are expressed. 

Intransitive Verbs. 
4. 
M I walk." " You smile." " John swims." 

44 James runs." " They wink." " Birds fly." 

44 William hops." " We dance." " Lions roar." 

Neuter Verbs. 

" William is (1.) discreet." (2.) " John's wife is fortunate." 

44 James is happy." " John's brother is unhappy." 

44 He was studious." 44 The eagle's flight was sudden." 

44 He became intemperate." 4t The scholar's duty is plain." 

44 Thou art wise." 44 The judge's pay is sufficient." 



XI. INDICATIVE MOOD— TENSE. 

Q. When James says, " I will learn," he evidently means, by his man^ 
ner of speaking, to express his intention to learn ; but when he says, " f 
can learn," what does he mean ? 

(1.) Is is a verb ; it implies being — neuter ; it is neither active nor pas- 
sive, but expresses being, merely — " 1 pers. I am ; 2 pers. You are ; 3 pers. 
He, or William is" — made in the third person, singular, because Wil- 
liam, its nominative, is, and agrees with William, according to 

Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person. 

(2.) Discreet belongs to William, by Rule IV. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

165. That he has the ability to learn. 

Q. What does the word mood mean? 

166. Mood means manner. 

Q. What, then, does the mood of verbs denote ? 

167. The different manner of representing actions. 

Q. What does the word indicative mean? 

168. Declaring or showing. 

Q. When I say, " William has studied," I declare some fact : in what 
mood, then, shall we class has studied ? 

169. In the indicative mood. 

Q,. When I say, " Has William studied?" the only difference between 
tnis phrase and the foregoing consists in a change in the order of the words, 
so as to show that a question is asked : in what mood, then, shall we call 
has William studied ? 

170. Indicative mood. 

Q. What, then, is the indicative mood used for? 

171. The indicative mood is used for asserting, indi- 
cating or declaring a thing, or asking a question. 

Q. In what mood is, "They do sing?" Why? (171.) 
Q. What does the word tense mean? 

172. Tense means time. 

Q. What does present mean ? 

173. Present means now. 

Q. When I say, " The bird sings," I mean that the bird sings now : in 
what tense, then, is sings ? 

174. In the present tense. 

Q. What, then, is the present tense used for? 

175. The present tense is used to express what is now 
taking place. 

Q. In what tense is, "The dog runs?" Why? (175.) 
Q. " James wrote." "James has written." These phrases denote 
what is past : in what tense are they ? 

176. In the past tense. 

Q. What does the word future mean ; as, " At some future time ?" 

177. Future means yet to come. 

Q. In what tense are the phrases, " I will come," " I shall have come ?" 

178. In the future tense. 

Q. How many grand divisions of time do there appear to be, and what 
are they ? 

179. Three — the present, past, and future. 

Q When I say, " John wrote," is the action here spoken of past and 
finished ? 

180. It is. 

Q. What does imperfect mean? 

181. Unfinished, or incomplete. 

Q. " John was writing when I saw him." This denotes an action un- 
finished in past time, and corresponds with what is usually denominated in 
Latin the imperfect tense : hence the origin of the name selected by English 
grammarians to denote action past and finished ; a term not all significant of 
an action finished in past time : what, then, does the imperfect tense express ? 

182. The imperfect tense expresses what took place in 
past time, however distant. 

Q. " Peter wrote yesterday, and has written to-day." Here both acts of 



VERBS. 23 

writing are past and finished ; but which has more immediate reference lo 
the present time ? 

183. Has written. 

Q. To distinguish this tense from the imperfect, grammarians have called 
it the perfect tense : what, then, will the perfect tense express ? 

184. The perfect tense expresses what has taken place, 
and also conveys an allusion to the present time. 

Q. " James had read before 1 wrote.' ' Here, both acts are past and 
finished , but which took place first ? 

185 The act of reading. 

Q. What does the word pluperfect mean? 

186. More than the perfect 

Q. What tense, then, shall we call, "James had read?" 

187 The pluperfect tense. 

Q. What, then, does the pluperfect tense express ? 

188. The pluperfect tense expresses what had taken 
place at or before some past time mentioned. 

Q. " John will come." This, you know, was called the future tense : 
can you tell me why ? 

189. Because it implies time to come. 

Q. What, then, does the future tense express ? 

190. The future tense expresses what will take place 
hereafter. 

Q. " I shall have learned my lesson by noon." Here, an action is to 
take place at a future time specified or mentioned ; and since we already 
have one future tense, we will call that the first, and this the second future 
tense : what, then, will the second future tense express ? 

191. The second future expresses what will have taken 
place at or before some future time mentioned, 

Q. What does synopsis mean? 

192. A concise and general view. 

Q. I will now present you with a synopsis of all the different tenses, 
illustrated by the verb learn ; will you repeat it ? 

SYNOPSIS. 

193. Pres. tense, I learn, or do learn. 

Imp. tense, I learned, or did learn. 

Perf. tense, I have teamed. 

Plup. tense, I had learned. 

1st Fut. tense, I shall or will learn. 

2d Fut. tense, I shall have learned. 

{Kr You shall next have the different variations of the foregoing verb, in 
each tense of the indicative mood : these I wish you to study very carefully, 
that you may be able to answer the questions which will then be asked you, 

194, To learn. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 Pets. I learn. 1 Pers. We learn. 

2 Pers. You learn. 2 Pers. You learn. 

3 Pers. He, she, or it learns. 3 Pers. They learn. 

3 



£6 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



OR, 

When we wish to express energy or positiveness, thus— 
Singular, Plural. 

1. I do learn. 1. We do learn. 

2. You do learn. 2. You do learn. 

3. He does learn. 3. They do learn. 





IMPERFECT TENSE. 


1. 


Singular. Plural, 
I learned. 1. We learned. 


2. 


You learned. 2. You learned. 


3 


He learned. 3. They learned. 


1. 


OR, 

Singular. Plural. 
I did learn. 1. We did learn. 


2. 


You did learn 2. You did learn. 


3. 


He did learn. 3. They did learn. 




PERFECT TENSE. 


1. 


Singular. Plural. 
I have learned. 1. We have learned. 


2. 


You have learned. 2. You have learned. 


3. 


He has learned. 3. They have learned. 




PLUPERFECT TENSE. 


1. 


Singular Plural. 
I had learned. 1. We had learned. 


2. 


You had learned. 2. You had learned. 


3. 


He had learned. 3. They had learned. 




FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 


1. 


Singular. Plural. 
I shall or will learn. 1. We shall or will learn. 


2. 


You shall or will learn. 2. You shall or will learn. 


3. 


He shall or will learn. 3. They shall or will learn. 




SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 


i. 


Singular. Plural. 
I shall have learned. I. We shall have learned. 


2. 


You will have learned. 2. You will have learned. 


3. 


He will have learned. 3. They will have learned. 



%* For the benefit of those who choose to retain the second persor 
Ur, as given in former treatises, the following synopsis is inserted. 



mgu« 



SYNOPSIS. 

195. 2d Pers. Sing. Pres. Thou learnest, or dost learn. 

Thou learnedst, or didst learn. 
Thou hast learned. 
Thou hadst learned. 
Thou shalt or wilt learn. 
Thou wilt have learned. 



2d Pers. Sing. Imp 
2d Pers. Sing, Perf. 
2d Pers. Sing. Plup. 
2d Pers. Sing. 1st Fut 
2d Fut 



2d Pers. Sing 

Q. In what mood is, " I learn?" Why ? (171.) In what tense ? Why? 
(175.) In what mood and tense is, " He learns ?" " We learn ?" '* I did 
learn?" " I have learned?" " I had learned?" " I shall or will learn?" 
" I shall have learned ?" 

Q. In what person and number is, "I learn ?" " You learn ?" " We 
learn?" " They had learned?" " He shall learn ?" " We had learned ?" 

Q. What does the word auxiliary mean? 

196. Auxiliary means helping. 



VERBS. 27 

Q. In the phrase, " I will sing,*' will, you perceive, is used to help form 
the future tense of sing : will is, therefore, called an auxiliary verb, and the 
verb sing is reckoned the principal verb : what, then, are auxiliary verbs ? 

197. Auxiliary verbs are those by the help of which 
are formed the different tenses, moods, &c. of the prin- 
cipal verbs. 

Q. The auxiliary verbs are not unfrequently denominated the signs of the 
tenses, because each tense has, in general, an auxiliary peculiar to itself; 
what, then, is the sign of the second future ? 

198. Shall or will have. 

Q. What is the sign of the first future ? 

199. Shall or will 

Q. What is the sign of the pluperfect ? 

200. Had. 

Q. What is the sign of the perfect ? 

201. Race. 

Q. What is the sign of the imperfect ? 

202. Did. 

Q. We can say, ** I did strike yesterday," or, " I struck yesterday ?" how, 
then, can we tell when a verb is in the imperfect tense without the sign did ? 

203. If we can place yesterday after the verb, and 
make sense, it is in the imperfect tense. 

Q. What is the sign of the present tense ? 

204. Do, or the first form of the verb. 

Q. From the foregoing, how many tenses does the indicative mood appear 
to have, and what are they ? 

205. Six — the present, the imperfect, the perfect, the 
pluperfect, the first and second future tenses. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
" They have arrived" 

206. They is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — 
personal; it always represents the same person — third 
person ; it denotes the persons spoken of — plural ; it means 
more than one — " Nom. he ; Poss. his ; Obj. him. Plural. 
Nom. they" — made in the nominative case to have arrived, 
according to 

Rule VI. The nominative case governs the verb. 

Have arrived is a verb, a word that implies action or being 
— active ; it implies action — intransitive ; it does not 
admit of an object — indicative mood ; it simply indicates or 
declares a thing — perfect tense ; it expresses what has just 
taken place — " 1. I have arrived; 2. You have arrived; 3. He 
has arrived. Plural, 1. We have arrived; 2. You have 
arrived ; 3. They have arrived" — made in the third person 
plural, because its nominative they is, and agrees with it, 
according to 

Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in 
number and person. 



J» 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED 

1. 

"They had come." "The sun has risen. 

" We did go." " Dogs will fight." 

"The bird will return." " Lions will roar." 

2. 

" James loves William." " Columbus discovered America.* 

" Susan beats him." " Piety promotes our happiness." 

"I have beaten them." " He will learn his lesson." 

"She had beaten us." "John did make great progress." 

"You shall assist him." "They do study their lessons." 

"It did disturb me." "Boys love sport." 

3. 

" Do I disturb you ?" " Shal) I expect your assist- 

"Did they iearn their lessons?" ancel" 

"Have they recited?" "Will a virtuous citizen commit 

"Does the instructer teach us]' such (1.) acts?" 

14 Had he dismissed him !" " Have you found your knife !" 



XII. POTENTIAL MOOD. 

0. What does, "He may write," imply? 

207. Permission or liberty to write. 

Q. What does, "He must write," imply? 

208. Necessity of writing. 

Q. What does, "He can write," imply? 

209. Power or ability to write. 

Q. What does, "He should write," imply? 

210. Duty or obligation to write. 

Q. What does, "He would write," imply? 

211. Will or inclination to write. 

Q. What does the word potential mean ? 

212. Able, or powerful. 

Q. In what mood, then, do grammarians reckon can learn, may write, 
and, also, must write, should write, &c. ? 

213. In the potential mood. 

Q. Why are all these different forms of representing actions considered 
to be in the potential mood, a name, as we have seen, peculiar only to that 
form of the verb which imnlies power ? 

214. To prevent multiplying moods to a great and 
almost numberless extent. 

Q. What, then, does the potential mood imply? 

215 The potential mood implies possibility, liberty, 
power, will, obligation, or necessity. 

Q. What are the signs of this mood ? 

216. May, can, must, might, could, would, and should. 

Q. What does the word conjugation mean? 

» i ■ . — ■■ • • 

CI.) Adjective. 



VERBS. 29 

217. Uniting, combining, or joining together. 

Q. You recollect that, in varying the verb, we joined the pronouns with 
it; hence, this exercise is called conjugation : what, then, do you under- 
stand by the conjugation of a verb ? 

218. The conjugation of a verb is the regular combi- 
nation and arrangement of its several moods, tenses, 
numbers, and persons. 

219. Conjugation of the verb Learn. 
POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must learn. 1. We may, can, or must learn. 

2. You may, can, or must learn. 2. You may, can, or must learn. 

3. He may, can, or must learn. 3. They may, can, or must learn. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or 

learn. should learn. 

2. You might, could, would, or 2. You might, could, would, or 

should learn. should learn. 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or 

should learn. should learn. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must have 1. We may, can, or must have 

learned. learned. 

2. You may, can, or must have 2. You may, can, or must have 

learned. learned. 

3. He may, can, or must have 3. They may, can, or must have 

learned. learned. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or 

have learned. should have learned. 

2. You might, could, would, or 2. You might, could, would, or 

should have learned. should have learned. 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or 

should have learned. should have learned. 

Synopsis of the Second Person Singular, with Thou. 

220. 
Pres. Thou mayst, canst, or must learn. 
Imp. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst learn. 
Perf. Thou mayst, canst, or must have learned. 
Plup. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have learned. 

Q. In what mood is, "I may learn?" Why? (215) 

Q. Will you repeat the synopsis with I? thou ? he ? we? ye? you ? they ? 

Q. In what mood, tense, numher, and person, is, " I can learn?" " You 
may learn ?" " You might assist ?" " They could have learned ?" "He 
must study ?" 

Q. In what mood and tense is, " I have learned?" "He shall run? 
u William did sing?" 

Q. Wou you conjugate learn in the present tense, potential mood ? Wili 

3* 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

you conjugate love in the same mood, and imperfect tense ? Strike, in the 
perfeet tense ? Come, in the pluperfect tense ? 
Q, I--.ow many tenses has the potential mood? 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
" He may return." 

221. He is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — . 
personal; it invariably represents the same person — mascu- 
line gender ; it represents a male — third person ; it de- 
notes the person spoken of — singular number ; it implies but 
one — and in the nominative case ; it denotes the agent — *> 
ct Nom. Ae" — nominative case to may return, by 

Rule VI. The nominative case governs the verb. 

May return is a verb ; it implies action or being — active ; 
it implies action — intransitive ; it does not. admit an object 
after it — potential mood ; it implies possibility, liberty, &c. 
— present tense ; it denotes what may be now — u 1. I may 
or can return ; 2. You may or can return ; 3. He may or can 
return" — made in the third person, singular, because its 
nominative he is, with which it agrees, according to 

Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in 
number and person. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 
1. 

" He may come." "Boys may learn arithmetic." 

" He might retire." " The wind may have shaken the 

" John can assist me." trees." 

"William must obey his in- "The lady could have procured 

structer." her fan." 

" We may have erred." "James may catch the thief." 

" John's father would go." " They might learn." 

2. 
"I do rejoice." "The committer will visit the 

" We do learn." school." 

" John will resume his task." " An idle boy will find pov- 

" An industrious boy will be rich." erty." 



XIII. CONJUGATION OF THE NEUTER VERB 

To be. 

222. When I say, " I am at home," you know that am is a vcb. because 
it implies being or existence ; and since to be means to exist, the verb am 
has been called the verb to be. 

223. INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT tense 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am. 1. We are. 

2. You are. 2. You are. 

3. He is. 3. They are. 



VERBS. 3. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I was. 1. We were. 

2. You were. 2. You were. 

3. He was. 3. They were. 

PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been. 1. We have been. 

2. You have been. 2. You have been. 

3. He has been. 3. They have been. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been. 1. We had been. 

2. You had been. 2. You had been. 

3. He had been. 3. They hud been. 

FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be. 1. We shall or will be. 

2. You shall or will be. 2. You shall or will be. 

3. He shall or will be. 3. They shall or will be. 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 

2. You will have been. 2. You will have been. 

3. He will have been. 3. They will have been. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must be. 1. We may, can, or must be. 

2. You may, can, or must be. 2. You may, can, or must be. 

3. He may, can, or must be. 3. They may, can, or must be. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or 

be. should be. 

2. You might, could, would, or 2. You might, could, would, ot 

should be. should be. 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or 

should be. should be. 
PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must have 1. We may, can, or must have 

been. been. 

2. You may, can, or must have 2. You may, can, or must have 

been. been. 

3. He may, can, or must have 3. They may, can, or must have 

been. been. 
PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or should 1. We might, could, would, or 

have been. should have been. 

2. You might, could, would, or 2. You might, could, would, or 

should have been. should have been. 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, ot 

should have been. should have been. 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

224, Synopsis of the Second Person Singular, with Thou. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Pres. Thou art. Pres. Thou mayst, canst, or must be. 

Imp. Thou wast. Imp. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 

Perf. Thou hast been. or shouldst be. 

Plup. Thou hadst been. Perf, Thou mayst, canst, or must 

1 Fut. Thou shalt or wilt have been. 

be. Plup. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 

2 Fut. Thou wilt have been. or shouldst have been. 



XIV. QUESTIONS ON THE FOREGOING CONJUGATION. 

Q. Why is am a verb ? (158.) What is it sometimes called ? (222.) Why 
is it so called ? (222.) 

Q. Will you give the synopsis of the verb to be with I through the indica- 
tive mood ? 

Q. Will you conjugate am in the present indicative ? Imperfect ? Per- 
fect ? Pluperfect ? 1 Future ? 2 Future ? Present potential ? Imper- 
fect ? Perfect ? Pluperfect ? 

Q. In what mood, tense, number, and person, is, "I am ?" " Am I?" 
"You were?" "I have been?" "Have you been?" "He may or can 
be?" "We should be?" "He may have been?" "They should have 
been ?" " Thou shouldst have been ?" " Thou mayst be ?" 

Q. Will you repeat the synopsis with thou ? 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
" The girls were industrious. 99 

225. Were is a verb ; it implies action or being — neuter ; 
it is neither active nor passive, expressing simply being — 
indicative mood; it simply indicates or declares a thing — 
imperfect tense ; it expresses past time — " 1. I was ; 2. You 
were ; 3. He was. Plur. 1. We were ; 2. You were ; 3. They 
were, or girls were" — made in the third person plural, be- 
cause its nominative girls is, with which it agrees, agreeably to 

Rule VII. A verb must agree with its nominative case in 
number and person. 

Industrious is an adjective, a word joined with a noun to 
describe it — " industrious, more industrious, most industrious" 
— in the positive degree ; it describes, without any compari- 
son — and belongs to the noun girls, according to 

Rule IV. Adjectives belong to the nouns which they de- 
scribe. 

J£r For the and girls, apply Rules III. and VI. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

" William is attentive." " Am I young]" 

44 John is studious." 44 Was I wrong?" 

44 We are jealous." 44 Have we been wicked ? H 

4 » Thou art dutiful." 44 Were thpy penitpnt V 



ADVERBS. 33 

«* Mary has been intelligent." M Washington was patriotic." 

u The boys will have been dutiful." " Columbus was enterprising." 
" Their estate was small." " My wife's mother is sick." 



XV. OF THE ADVERB. 

Q. When I say, " The bird flies swiftly," I do not mean by swiftly to 
describe bird : what does swiftly describe ? 

226. The manner of flying. 

Q. To what part of speech is swiftly joined in the phrase, "The bird 
flies swiftly?" 

227- To the verb pes. 

Q. What does the word adverb signify? 

228. Joined to a verb. 

Q. What, then, shall we call all such words as swiftly? 

229. Adverbs. 

Q. "John runs very swiftly." Which word here describes or shows 
how swiftly John runs ? 

230. Very. 

Q. What is the word very called, and all such words as qualify or de- 
scribe adverbs ? 

231. Adverbs. 

Q. "Industrious, more industrious, most industrious." What are more 
and most called here, and why ? 

232. Adverbs, because they describe or qualify adjec- 
tives. 

Q. From the foregoing particulars, what appears to be a proper definition 
of adverbs ? 

233. Adverbs are words joined to verbs, adjectives, and 
other adverbs, to qualify or describe them. 

Q. "John visits me often, but Thomas oftener." In this example, we 
see that adverbs may be compared : will you, therefore, compare soon ? 

234. " Soon, sooner, soonest." 

Q. Will you compare wisely? 

235. " Wisely, more wisely, most wisely." 

Q. How do adverbs ending in ly appear to be compared ? 

236. By the adverbs more and most. 

Q. Will you in this manner compare admirably? foolishly? 

Q. Many adverbs are compared like adjectives of one syllable, as soon 
/bove ; but there is a very considerable number, the comparison of which 
is not regulated by any general rule. The following list embraces adverbs 
variously compared : will you repeat the comparative and superlative of 
each, as I name the positive ? 

237. 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 
oftenest. 


Often, 


oftener, 


Much, 


more, 


most. 


Well, 


better, 


best. 


Soon, 


sooner, 


soonest. 


Justly, 


more justly, 


most justly. 


Wisely, 


more wisely, 


most wisely 


Justly, 


less justly, 


least justly. 


Badly, or ill, 


worse, 


worst. 


c 







34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

238. Note. — Adverbs, though very numerous, may nevertheless be reduced to a few 
classes. You will now read with attention the following list, and I will then ask 
you some questions respecting each class. 

1. Of number: as, " Once, twice, thrice," &c. 

2. Of order: as, " First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, fifthly, lastly, finally," &c. 

3. Of place: as, " Here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, somewhere, nowhere, 
herein, whither, hither, thither, upward, downward, forward, backward, whence, 
hence, thence, whithersoever," &x. 

4. Of time. 

Of time present : as, " Now, to-day," &c. 

Of time past : as, " Already, before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, hitherto, long 
since, long ago," &c. 

Of time to come: as, " To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, henceforth, henceforward, 
by and by, instantly, presently, immediately, straightways," &c. 

Of time indefinite: as, " Oft, often, ofttimes, oftentimes, sometimes, soon, seldom, 
^aily, weekly, monthly, yearly, always, when, then, ever, never, again," &c. 

5. Of quantity : as, " Mueh, little, sufficiently, how much, how great, enough, 
Abundantly," &c. 

C. Of manner or quality: as, " Wisely, foolishly, justly, unjustly, quickly, slowly," 
&c. Adverbs of quality.are the most numerous kind ; and they are generally formed 
by adding the termination ly to an adjective or participle, or changing le into ly : as, 
"Bad, badly; cheerful, cheerfully ; able, ably; admirable, admirably." 

7. Of doubt: as, " Perhaps, peradventure, possibly, perchance." 

8. Of affirmation: as, "Verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubtless, certainly, yea, yes, 
surely, indeed, really," &c. 

9. Of negation: as, " Nay, no, not, by no means, not at all, in no wise," &c. 

10. Of interrogation: as, " How, why, wherefore, whether," &c. 

11. Of comparison: as, " More, most, better, best, worse, worst, less, least, very, 
almost, little, alike," &c. 

When a preposition suffers no change, but becomes an adverb merely by its appli« 
cation: as, when we say, "He rides about;''' "He was wear falling;" " But do not 
after lay the blame on me." 

There are also some adverbs, which are composed of nouns, and the letter a used 
instead of at, on, &c. : as, " Aside, athirst, afoot, ahead, asleep, aboard, ashore, abed, 
aground, afloat." 

Q. Will you name two adverbs of number ? two of order ? two of place ? 
two of time present ? two of time past ? two of time to come ? two of time 
indefinite ? two of quantity ? two of manner or quality ? two of doubt ? two 
of affirmation ? two of negation ? two of interrogation ? two of comparison ? 

Q. Adjectives describe as well as adverbs : how, then, can you tell one 
from the other ? 

239. Adjectives describe nouns, but adverbs describe 
or qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 

Q. This fact should be remembered ; you shall, therefore, have it in the 
form of a rule : will you repeat it ? 

RUXiE IX. 

Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 

Q. From bad we form the ^adverb badly : how, then, may a large class 
of adverbs be formed ? 

240. By adding ly to adjectives. 

Q. Will you in this manner form an adverb from wise ? from great ? from 
sinful ? 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

" The bird sings sweetly" 

241. Sweetly is an adverb, a word used to qualify a verb, 
adjective, or other adverb ; in this example it qualifies the verb 
sings, agreeably to 

Rule IX. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other 
adverbs. 

Singu, bird and the are parsed as before. 



PREPOSITIONS. 



35 



EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 
Adverbs qualifying verbs. 
The soldiers marched slowly." " They will return soon." 
The girls sing delightfully." " The boys write admirably." 

Henry improves rapidly." " Susan dances elegantly." 

Adverbs qualifying adjectives. 

He was very attentive." " James is more studious." 

John is quite busy." " Walter is most studious." 

William is really studious." "Ellen is less happy." 

Adverbs qualifying verbs and other adverbs. 

You learn grammar very well." "James writes most elegantly." 
The boys write too fast." " I will assist you most cheer- 



He will come much oftener. 



fully. 



Adverbs promiscuously used. 
He has read once." "John is not happy." 

I will first remind you." " Whither shall* I fly 1" 

I saw him yesterday." " My brother sends me the paper 

I have eaten sufficiently." monthly." 



XVI. OP THE PREPOSITION. 

Q. To say, "The cider is — cellar," would make no sense: can you 
inform me what would make sense ? 

242. " The cider is in the cellar." 

Q. By placing the little word in after cider is, and before cellar, the sen- 
tence is rendered complete : what office, then, does in perform ? 

243. It connects words, and thereby shows the relation 
between them. 

Q. What does the word preposition mean ? 

244. Placed before. 

Q. What, then, may those words like in be called, as they are placed 
before other words to connect them with words preceding ? 

245. Prepositions. 

Q. What, then, are prepositions? 

246. Prepositions are words used to connect words, and 
thereby show the relation between them. 



247. List of the principal Prepositions. 



Among 

around 

amidst 

athwart 

after 

about 

against 

across 

above 

according to 



at 
by 

below 

between 

beneath 

behind 

betwixt 

beside 

beyond 

before 



concerning 


near 


down 


of 


except 


off 


excepting 


on 


for 


over 


from 


out of 


in 


respecting 


into 


to 


instead of 


towards 


notwithstanding 


through 



throughout 

touching 

up 

upon 

under 

underneath 

unto 

with 

within 

without 



Q. Will you mention the prepositions beginning with a? with b? c? dl 
it ft it n? o? r? t? u? w? 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Will you now repeat all the prepositions? 
I Do we say, "He works for I," or, "He works for me"? 
In what case is me? (127.) 
What case, then, follows prepositions ? 

248. The objective case. 

Q. This fact is of sufficient importance to constitute a rule : will you t 
therefore, repeat 

RULE X. 

Prepositions govern the objective case. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
" John found his hat in the road." 

249. In is a preposition, a word used to connect words, 
and show the relation between them ; it here shows the relation 
between hat and road. 

Road is a noun ; it is a name — common ; it is a general 
name — neuter gender ; it is neither male nor female — third 
person ; it is spoken of — singular number ; it means but one 
— objective case ; it is the object of the relation denoted by 
the preposition in, and governed by it according to 

Rule X. Prepositions govern the objective case* 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

"John ran through the house into "I will search the house dili- 

the garden." gently for him." 

" We have deceived him to our " We might learn the lesson be- 

sorrow." fore them." 

"We came in season." "According to my impression, he 

" You study grammar for your is in fault." 

improvement in language." " Notwithstanding his poverty, he 

" From virtue to vice the progress was the delight of his ac- 

is gradual." quaintances." 

"They travelled into France "On all occasions she behaved 

through Italy." with propriety." 

" He lives within his income." " Of his talents we might say 

" Without the aid of charity, he much." 

lived very comfortably by his " We may expect a calm after a 

industry." storm." 



XVII. OF THE CONJUNCTION. 

Q. When I say, " John his book," the sense, you perceive, isincom- 

plete. Can you put a word into the blank which will complete the sense ? 

250. " John reads his book." 

* The remaining words are parsed as before. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 37 

Q. Can you inform me what the foregoing expression is called? 

251. A sentence. 

Q. What, then, is a sentence ? 

252. A collection of words, forming a complete sense. 

Q. " Life is short." This expression is called a sentence : can you tell 
me what kind, and why ? 

253. It is a simple sentence, because it makes sense, 
and has but one nominative and one verb. 

Q. What does the term compound mean? 

254. It means composed of two or more things. 

Q. " Life is short, and art is long." This sentence is made up of tw« 
simple sentences : what, therefore, may it be called ? 

255. A compound sentence. 

Q. What, then, is a compound sentence ? 

256. A compound sentence contains two or more sim- 
ple sentences connected together. 

Q. What does the term conjunction signify ? 

257. Union, or joining together. 

Q. In the compound sentence, M John writes, and William learns," the 
simple sentences are joined together by the word and : what word, then, 
may and be called ? 

258. A Conjunction. 

Q. " The king and queen are an amiable pair." In this sentence, words 
and not sentences are connected by and : can you point out the words so 
connected ? 

259. King and queen. 

Q. From the foregoing particulars, what appears to be the use of the 
conjunction ? 

260. A conjunction is used to connect words and sen 
tences together. 

Q. When I say, " Five and four are nine," what do I mean? 

261. Five added to four make nine. 

Q. What, then, is implied by and? 

262. Addition. 

Q. When I say, " I will go, if you will accompany me," what does the 
conjunction if imply ? 

263. Condition or supposition. 

Q. What does the word copulative mean? 

264. Uniting, joining, or linking together. 

Q. And , if, &c. are called copulative conjunctions : can you tell me why \ 

265. Because a copulative conjunction connects or con- 
tinues a sentence by expressing an addition, a supposition, 
a cause, &c. 

Q. The following are the principal conjunctions of this class : will you 
repeat them ? 

266. " And, both, because, besides, for, if, provided, 
since, then, that, therefore, wherefore." 

Q. When I say, " James and John will come," I mean both will come •, 
but when I say, " James or John will come," what do I mean? 

267. That either James or John, one of them, will 
come. 

4 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Q. Are the words in this sentence, then, joined or disjoined ? 

268. Disjoined. 

Q. What word is it that expresses the disjoining? 

269. Or. 

Q. What part of speech is or ? 

270. Conjunction. 

Q. What does the word disjunctive mean? 

271. Disjoining or separating. 

Q. What kind of a conjunction, then, shall we call or ? 

272. A disjunctive conjunction. 

Q. "James will come, but Henry will not." Here the two clauses of 
the sentence are opposed to each other in meaning, and the word but sepa= 
rates these two clauses : what, then, does this word imply ? 

273. Opposition of meaning. 

Q. From the foregoing, what appears to be the use of the disjunctive 
conjunction? 

274. The conjunction disjunctive connects sentences, by- 
expressing opposition of meaning in various degrees. 

Q. The following are the principal conjunctions, of this class : will you 
repeat them ? 

275. " But, than, though, either, or, as, unless, neither, 
nor, less, yet, notwithstanding." 

Q. Prepositions, you recollect, connect words, as well as conjunctions ; 
how, then, can you tell the one from the other ? 

276. Prepositions show the relation between words, but 
conjunctions express an addition, a supposition, a cause, 
or an opposition of meaning. 

Q. " He and she write." In what case is lie ? she ? 

Q. The pronouns he and she, you perceive, are both in the same case, 
and connected by the conjunction and : when, then, may nouns and pro- 
nouns be connected ? 

277. When they are in the same case. 

Q. " She will sing and dances." How may this sentence be corrected ? 

278. " She will sing and dance." 

Q. In what mood and tense is, " She will sing ?' 

Q. To say, '* She dance," is incorrect; dance, then, in this example, 
cannot be in the present tense : will you, then, inform me what " She will 
eing and dance" means, when fully expressed ? 

279. " She will sing and she will dance." 

Q. Here will dance is in the future tense, as well as will sing : when, 
then, may verbs, in general, be connected? 

280. When they are in the same mood and tense. 

Q. From the foregoing particulars, what appears to be the rule for the 
use of conjunctions, in connecting words ? 

HULE XI. 

Conjunctions usually connect verbs of the same 
mood and tense, and nouns or pronouns of the 
same case. 



INTERJECTIONS. 39 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
" John assists his father and mother." 

281. And is a conjunction, a word chiefly used to connect 
words and sentences — copulative ; it connects father and 
mother. 

Mother is a noun ; it is a name — common ; it is a general 
name — feminine gender; it is the name of a female — 
third person; it is spoken of — singular number; it means 
but one — and it is one of the objects of assists, and is, there- 
fore, in the objective case, and connected with father by the 
conjunction and, according to 

Rule XI. Conjunctions usually connect verbs of the same 
mood and tense, and nouns or pronouns of the same case. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

" I will reward him and them at "She reads well, dances (3.) ele- 

some future time." gantly, and plays admirably 

44 We in vain (1.) look for a path on the piano-forte." 

between virtue and vice." " Intemperance destroys the mind 

•* Reproof either hardens or soft- and benumbs the senses of 

ens its object." man." 

"In the morning of life, we ea- "You may read this sentence 

gerly pursue pleasure, but first, and then parse it." 

oftentimes meet (2.) with sad " He has equal knowledge, but 

disappointments." inferior judgment." 

" A good scholar never mutters " John rises early in the morning, 

nor disobeys his instructer." and pursues his studies." 



XVIII. OF INTERJECTIONS. 

Q. When I exclaim, '* Oh! I have ruined my friend," " Alas ! I fear 
for life," which words here appear to be thrown in between the sentences, 
to express passion or feeling ? 

282. Oh! Alas! 

Q. What does interjection mean? 

283. Thrown between. 

Q. What name, then, shall we give such words as oh ! alas ! &c? 

284. Interjections. 

Q. What, then, are interjections? 

285. Interjections are words thrown in between the 
parts of sentences, to express the passions or sudden 
feelings of the speaker. 

(1.) In vain means the same as vainly. It may, therefore, be called an 
adverbial phrase, qualifying look, by Rule IX. 

(2.) Meet agrees with we understood, and is, therefore, connected with 
pursue by the conjunction but, according to Rule XL 

(3.) Dances and plays both agree with she, understood, and are, therefore, 
connected the former with reads, and the latter with dances, by Rule XI. 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LIST OF INTERJECTIONS. 

1. Of earnestness or grief; as, " O ! oh ! alas ! ah !" 

2. Of wonder ; as, "Really! strange!" 

3. Of calling; as, "Halloo! ho! hem!" 

4. Of attention; as, "Behold! lo! hark!" 

5. Of disgust ; as, " Foh ! fy ! fudge ! away !" 

6. Of silence ; as, " Hush ! hist !" 

7. Of contempt; as, "Pish! tush!" 

8. Of saluting ; as, "Welcome! hail!" 

Q. Will you examine the foregoing list, and then name an interjection of 
grief? One of wonder? One of calling ? One of attention ? One of dis- 
gust ? One of silence ? One of saluting ? 

Q. How may an interjection generally be known ? 

286. By its taking an exclamation point after it. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
" Oh ! I have alienated my friend" 

287. Oh is an interjection, a word used to express pas- 
sion or feeling. 

#Cr The remaining words are parsed as before. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

" Oh ! I must go and see (1.) my " Strange ! I did not know 
dear father before (2.) he dies." you." 

** We eagerly pursue pleasure, but, "Hush! our instructer is at the 
alas! we often mistake the door." 

road to its (3.) enjoyment." " Fy ! how angry he is !" 

(1.) The sense is, "I must go, and I must see;" the verb see, then, 
agrees with J, understood, and is, therefore, connected with must go, ac- 
cording to Rule XI. 

(2.) Before, an adverb. 

(3.) Apply, first, Rule V. ; then, Rule I, 



RECAPITULATION. 



CRITICAL REMARKS. 

COMPOSITION. 

XIX. ENGLISH .GRAMMAR. 

288. English Grammar teaches us to speak and write the 
English language correctly. 

289. Grammar is divided into four parts, namely, 

290. 1. Orthography, 3. Syntax, 
2. Etymology, 4. Prosody. 



XX. OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 

291. Orthography includes a knowledge of the nature and 
power of letters, and teaches how to spell words correctly. 
This part of grammar is usually learned from spelling-books 
and dictionaries. 

292. Orthography means word-making, or spelling. 



XXI. OF ETYMOLOGY. 

293. Etymology teaches how to form, from all the words 
in the English language, several grand divisions or sorts, com- 
monly called Parts of Speech. 

294. It includes a knowledge of the meaning and use of 
words — also their different changes and derivations. 

295. Etymology signifies the origin or pedigree of words. 

XIX. What does English grammar How is a knowledge of orthography 
teach? 288. usually obtained ? 291. 

Into how many parts is it divided ? 289. What does orthography mean ? 292. 

What are they ? 290. XXI. What does etymology teach ? 293 

XX. What does orthography include What does it include ? 294. 

nnd teach ? 291. What does the word signify ? 295. 

4* (41) 



42 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
XXII. OF SYNTAX. 



296. Syntax teaches how to arrange or form words into 
sentences correctly* 

297. It includes a knowledge of the rules of composi- 
tion, formed from the practice of the best writers and 
speakers. 

298. Syntax signifies arranging or placing together; or, as used in gram- 
mar, sentence-making. 



XXIII. ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX COMBINED. 

299. The words of the English language are usually- 
divided into nine sorts, commonly called Parts of Speech, 
namely, 

Noun, Pronoun, Preposition, 

Article, Verb, Conjunction, 

Adjective, Adverb, Interjection. 



XXIV. OF NOUNS. 

300. A noun is the name of any person, place or thing ; as, 
man, London, knife. 

301. Nouns are of two kinds, proper and common. 
Common nouns are general names ; that is, they are names 

common to all individuals of the same kind or sort, as, house, 
city, river. 

302. Proper nouns are particular names; that is, they 
are the names of particular individuals of the same kind or sort ; 
as, George, Boston, Mississippi. 

303. When proper names have an article placed before them, they ars 
used as common names ; as. " He is the Cicero of his age." 

304. When a proper noun admits of a plural, it becomes a common noun ; 



XXII. What does syntax teach ? 296. 
What does it include ? 297. 

What does the word. signify ? 298. 

XXIII. How many different sorts of 
words are there ? 299. 

What are they ? 299. 
What are these sorts of words com- 
monly called ? 299. 

XXIV. What does the word noun 
mean ?* 

What is a noun ? 300. Give an exam- 
ple. 

How many different kinds of nouns are 
tfme, and what are they ? 301. 



What does the word common mean ? 
31 

What is a common noun ? 301. Give 
an example. 

What does proper mean ? 34. 

What is a proper noun ? 302. Give an 
example. 

When proper nouns have an article 
before them, how are they used 7 303. 
Give an example. 

Are proper names used as such in the 
plural 7 304. 

Why cannot proper names have a 
plural? 304. 



* See L 1st answer. 



NOUNS. 43 

as, M The twelve Casars," or, " The seven Jameses.' 1 This is obvious 
from the fact, that a proper name is, in its nature, descriptive of one object 
only, and, therefore, essentially singular. Accordingly, the nouns Span- 
iard, European, American, &c. are common nouns, as well as their plurals, 
Spaniards, Europeans, Americans, &,c* 

305. Common nouns may also be used to signify individuals, by the 
addition of articles or pronouns ; as, " The boy is studious ;" " That girl is 
discreet/' 

306. When a noun signifies many, it is called a noun of multitude, or a 
collective noun ; as, " The people," " The army. 11 

307. Abstract signifies taken from: hence an abstract noun is the name of 
a quality abstracted from its substance ; as, knowledge, goodness, virtue, &c. 

308. To nouns belong person, gender, number and case. 



XXV. PERSON. 

309. When any person, in speaking, introduces his own 
name, it is the first person ; as, " I, James, of the city of Bos- 
ton, do give," &c. 

310. The name of the person spoken to, is the second person ; 
as, " James, come to me." 

311. The name of the person or thing spoken of, or about, 
is the third person ; as, " James has come." 



XXVI. GENDER. 

312. Gender is the distinction of sex. 

313. Nouns have four genders — the masculine, the feminine, 
the common, and the neuter. 

314. The masculine gender denotes the names of males ; as, 
man, boy, &c. 

315. The feminine gender denotes the names of females ; as, 
woman, girl. 

What do they become when so used? When is a noun of the second person ? 

304. Give an example. 310. Give an example. 

What kind of nouns are Spaniard, When is a noun of the third person? 

Americans, Spaniards! 304. 311. Give an example. 

What effect does the use of articles XXVI. What does the word gender 

have on common nouns? 305. mean ? 14. 

What is a noun of multitude, or a col- What is gender as applied to nouns? 

lective noun ? 306. Give an example. 3]2. 

What is an abstract noun ? 307. Give What does the word masculine mean?15. 
an example. What does the masculine gender of 

What belong to nouns? 308. nouns denote? 314. Give an example. 

XXV. When is a noun of the first per- What does feminine mean ? 19. 

son ? 309. Give an example. What does the feminine gender denote? 

315. Give an example. 

* Spam is the proper name of a country, and Spaniard his, by some grammarians, been called 'he proper 
name of a people ; but the lattter is a generic term, characterizing any oue of a great number of persons, by 
their connexion wi h Spam. — Encyciopxdia. 



44 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



316. The common gender denotes the names of such ani* 
mals as may be either male or female ; as, parent, bird. 

317. The neuter gender denotes the names of objects which 
are neither males nor females ; as, chair, table. 

318. Some nouns, naturally neuter, do, by a figure of speech, as it is 
called, become masculine or feminine ; as when we say of the sun, " He is 



.etting," and of a 


ship, " She sails weli," &c. 




319. The English language has three methods of distinguishing sex, vi 




319-1. By different words; as, 




Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Bachelor, 


Maid. 


Husband, 


Wife. 


Boar, 


Sow. 


King, 


Queen. 


Boy, 


Girl. 


Lad, 


Lass. 


Brother, 


Sister. 


Lord, 


Lady. 


Buck, 


Doe. 


Man, 


Woman. 


Bull, 


Cow. 


Master, 


Mistress. 


Bullock or~? 
Steer, 5 


Heifer. 


Milter, 


Spawner. 


Nephew, 


Niece. 


Cock, 


Hen. 


Ram, 


Ewe. 


Dog, 
Drake, 


Bitch. 
Duck. 


Singer, 


C Songstress or 
(_ Singer. 


Earl, 


Countess. 


Sir, 


Madam. 


Father, 


Mother. 


Sloven, 


Slut. 


Friar, 


Nun. 


Son, 


Daughter. 


Gander, 


Goose. 


Stag, 


Hind. 


Hart, 


Roe. 


Uncle, 


Aunt. 


Horse, 


Mare. 


Wizard, 


Witch. 


319-2. By a dhferenc 


e of termination ; 


as, 


Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Abbot, 


Abbess. 


Enchanter, 


Enchantress. 


Actor, 


Actress. 


Executor, 


Executrix. 


Administrator, 


Administratrix. 


God, 


Goddess. 


Adulterer, 


Adulteress. 


Governor, 


Governess. 


Ambassador, 


Ambassadress. 


Heir, 


Heiress. 


Arbiter, 


Arbitress. 


Hero, 


Heroine. 


Baron, 


Baroness. 


Hunter, 


Huntress. 


Bridegroom, 
Benefactor, 


Bride. 


Host, 


Hostess. 


Benefactress. 


Instructer, 


Instructress. 


Caterer, 


Cateress. 


Jew, 


Jewess. 


Chanter, 


Chantress. 


Landgrave, 


Landgravine. 


Conductor, 


Conductress. 


Lion, 


Lioness. 


Count, 


Countess. 


Marquis, 


Marchioness. 


Czar, 


Czarina. 


Mayor, 


Mayoress. 


Deacon, 


Deaconess. 


Patron, 


Patroness. 


Duke, 


Duchess. 


Peer, 


Peeress. 


Elector, 


Electress. 


Poet, 


Poetess. 


Emperor, 


Empress. 


Priest, 


Priestess. 



What does the common gender denote 1 
316. Give an example. 

What does neuter mean ? 23. 

What does the neuter gender denote 7 
317 Give an example. 

What is said of nouns naturally neu- 
ter, in respect to gender? 318. Give an 
example. 

How many gendersdo nouns have, and 
what are they ? 30. 

How many methods are there in Eng- 
lish of distinguishing sex ? 319. 

Which is the first ; as, boy ? girl? 319-1. 

Will you spell the feminine correspond- 
ing to brother? 319-1. to boy? nephew? 



wizard ? friar ? sir ? drake ? earl ? gando ? 
hart ? king ? lad ? man ? master ? singe. ? 
sloven 1 son ? stag ? uncle ? 

Will you spell the masculine conj- 
sponding to maid? girl? madam? dau b ,k~ 
ter? niece? 

What is the second method of distin- 
guishing sex ; as, abbot ? abbess ? 319-i;. 

Will you spell the feminine corre- 
sponding to abbot ? actor? administrator ? 
baron? benefactor? bridegroom? conduct- 
or? czar? duke? emperor? executor ? 
god? governor? heir? hero? host? hunt- 
er ? instructer ? Jew ? lion ? marquis ? pa- 
tronl peer? proprietor! shepherd? sor- 





NOUNS. 




Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Prince, 


Princess. 


Sultan, 


C Sultaness. 
£ Sultana. 


Prior, 


Prioress. 


Prophet, 


Prophetess. 


Tiger, 


Tigress. 


Protector, 


Protectress. 


Traitor, 


Traitress. 


Proprietor, 


Proprietress. 


Tutor, 


Tutoress. 


Shepherd, 


Shepherdess. 


Viscount, 


Viscountess. 


Songster, 


Songstress. 


Votary, 


Votaress. 


Sorcerer, 


Sorceress. 


Widower, 


Widow. 


319-3. 


By prefixing a noun 


, pronoun, or 


adjective ; as, 


A cock 


■sparrow, 


A hen 


-sparrow. 


A man- 


servant, 


A maid-servant. 


A he-goat, 


A she 


-goat. 


A he-bear, 


A she-bear. 


A male child, 


A female child. 


Male descendants, 


Female descendants. 



43 



XXVII. NUMBER. 



320. Number shows how many are meant, whether one or 
more. 

321. Nouns have two numbers, the singular and the plural. 

322. The singular number expresses but one ; as, boy. 

323. The plural number implies more than one ; as, boys. 

324. Some nouns are used in the singular number only ; as, 
wheat, gold, sloth, pride, dutifulness. 

325. Other nouns are u?ed in the plural number only ; as, 
bellows, scissors, Ivngs^ niches, &c. 

326. Some nouns are the same in both numbers ; as, deer, 
sheep, stcine. 

327. The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by 
adding s to the singular ; as, sing, dove, plur. doves. 

328. The irregular mode of forming the plural is as follows : when the 
noun singular ends in x, ch, soft, sh, or ss, we add es to form the plural ; as, 
box, boxes ,' church, churches ; lash, lashes ; kiss, kisses. 

329. Nouns ending in / orfe. change these terminations into ves to form 
the plural ; as, loaf, loaves ; wife, wives. 



cerer? sultan? tiger? tutor? viscount? 
votary ? widower ? 

Will you spell the masculine corre- 
sponding to abbess? czarina? duchess? 
ambassadress? heroine? huntress? poet- 
ess ? prophetess ? widow ? 

What is the third method of distin- 
guishing sex ; as, a man-servant? a maid- 
servant? 319-3. 

Will you spell the feminine corre- 
sponding to male child? male descendants ? 

XXVIt What does the word number 
mean ? 5. 

What does the number of nouns show ? 
320. 

What does singular mean ? 6. 



What does the singular number of 
nouns imply? 322. Give an example. 

What does plural mean ? 10. 

What does the plural number of nouns 
imply? 323. Give an example. 

How are wheat, gold, &c. used ? 324. 

How are bellows, lungs, &e. used ? 325 

What is said of deer, sheep, &c. ? 320. 

How many numbers do nouns have, 
and what are they ? 321. 

How is the plural number regularly 
formed? 327. Give an example. 

When do we add es to form the plural ? 
328. Give an example. 

What is the plural of loaf? 329. 

What is the rule for it ? 329. 



46 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



330. When a noun singular ends in y, with a vowel before it, the plura\ 
is formed regularly ; as, hey, keys ; delay, delays ; valley, valleys. But if 
the y does not have a vowel before it, the plural is formed by changing y 
into ies ; as, jly. flies ; beauty, beauties. 

321. The following nouns form their plurals not according to any general 
rules : — 



Si?ig. Plur. 

Fish, Fishes. (3.) 

Cupful, Cupfuls. 

Spoonful, Spoonfuls. 

Brother-in-law, Brothers-in-law. 
Court-martial, Courts-martial* 

*■*«. ffih r e e r r 

332. Mathematics, metaphysics, pneumatics, ethics, politics, &c. are reck* 
©ned either as singular or plural nouns. The same is equally true of means, 
alms, amends. Antipodes, credenda, minutioe, literati, &c. are always plural. 
Bandit is now considered the singular of banditti. The noun news is always 
singular. Many nouns form their plurals according to the laws of the lan- 
guage from which they are derived. The following are of this class : — 



Sing. 


Plur. 


Man, 


Men. 


Woman, 


Women. 


Child, 


Children 


Ox, 


Oxen. 


Tooth, 


Teeth. 


Foot, 


Feet. 


Goose, 


Geese. 



Sing. Plur. 
Mouse, Mice. 
Louse, Lice. 
n C Cows or 

Cow ' iKine. 
Penny, Pence. (1.) 
Die, Dice. (2.) 

Pea, Peas. (3.) 



Singular. 
Antithesis, 

Appendix, 

Apex, 

Arcanum, 

Automaton, 

Axis, 

Beau, 

Basis, 

Calx, 

Cherub, 

Crisis, 

Criterion, 

Datum, 

Diaeresis, 

Desideratum, 

Effluvium, 

Ellipsis, 

Emphasis, 

Encomium, 

Erratum, 



Plural. 

Antitheses. 
C Appendixes or 
£ Appendices. 

Apices. 

Arcana. 

Automata. 

Axes. 

Beaux or Beaus. 

Bases. 

Calces. 
C Cherubim or 
(_ Cherubs. 

Crises. 

Criteria. 

Data. 

Diaereses. 

Desiderata. 

Effluvia. 

Ellipses. 

Emphases. 
C Encomia or 
£ Encomiums. 

Errata. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Genius, 


Genii. (4.) 


Genus, 


Genera. 


Hypothesis, 


Hypotheses. 


Ignis fatuus, 


Ignes fatui. 


Index, 


$ Indices or 
£ Indexes. (5.) 


Lamina, 


Laminae. 


Magnus, 


Magi. 


Memorandum 


^Memoranda or 
? Memorandums. 


Metamorphosis, Metamorphoses. 


Parenthesis, 


Parentheses. 


Phenomenon, 


Phenomena. 


Radius, 


Radii or Radiuses. 


Stamen, 


Stamina. 


Seraph, 


C Seraphim or 
£ Seraphs. 


Stimulus, 


Stimuli. 


Stratum, 


Strata. 


Thesis, 


Theses. 


Vertex, 


Vertices. 


Vortex, 


C Vortices or 
(_ Vortexes. 



Will you spell the plural of delay? 330. 
valley? What is the rule for forming 
these plurals? 330. 

Will you spell the plural of fly ? 330. 
beauty ? Rule for the plural? 

Do man, woman, form their plurals re- 
gularly, or irregularly ? 331. 

Will you spell the plural of man? of 
woman? child? ox? tooth? foot? goose? 
mouse ? louse ? brother ? die ? fish ? spoon- 
ful ? court-martial ? 

Will you spell the singular of live? 
tine ? cows ? brethren ? oxen ? teeth ? 
pence? pennies? peas? fishes? cupfuls? 
brothers-in law ? 

What is the plural of pea, when we re- 
fer to quantity ? Of fish ? 



What is the singular of banditti? 
332. 

In accordance with what laws doe* 
antithesis form the plural ? 332. 

Will you spell the plural of apex? ap- 
pendix? arcanum? automaton ? axis ? cri- 
sis? basis? criterion? datum? desidera- 
tum? effluvium? encomium? erratum? 
genius? index? memorandum? 

Will you spell the singular of bases? 
beaux? cherubs? ellipses? genii? theses? 
parentheses ? stimuli ? strata ? 

How are mathematics, optics, &c. con- 
sidered in regard to number? 332. 

Of what number is means? 332. alms? 
amends? antipodes? literati? news? 



(1.) Pennies, when the coin is meant. (2.) Dies, for coining. (3.) Pease and fish, meaning quantities, but 
peas and fiihes, when number is me.nt. 

(4.) Genu, when denoting aerial or imaginary spirits ; geniuses, when denoting persons of genius. (5.) In 
dtxes, when deno ing pointers or tables of contents; indices, when referring to algebraic quantiti«s 



NOUNS. 47 



XXVIII. CASE. 



333. Case means the different state, condition, or relation 
which nouns have to other words in the same sentence. 

334. In English, nouns have three cases — the nominative, 
the possessive, and the objective. 

335. The nominative case is usually the agent or doer, and 
always the subject of the verb. 

336. The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of; as, " John assists Wil- 
liam:" here, John is the subject spoken of, or the nominative case to the 
*erb assists. 

337. The possessive case denotes possession, ownership, pro- 
perty, &c. ; as, " William's book." This case may be distin- 
guished from the other cases by the apostrophe or the letter s. 

338. A noun in the singular forms its possessive case by 
taking the apostrophe and the letter s after it ; as, " John's hat." 

339. Plural nouns usually form their possessive case simply 
by taking the apostrophe ; as, " On eagles' wings." 

340. When the plural of nouns does not end in s, they form their posses- 
sive case by taking both the apostrophe and the letter s; as, " Men s 
houses." 

341. When the singular ends in ss, the apostrophe only is added ; as, "For 
goodness 1 sake:" except the noun witness ; as, " The witness's deposition." 

342. Nouns ending in nee form the possessive by adding the apostrophe 
only ; as, " For conscience 1 sake :" because an additional s would occasion 
too much of the hissing sound, or increase the difficulty of pronunciation. 

343. The objective case denotes the object of an action or 
relation. 

344. In the sentence, " John strikes him," Mm is the object of the action 
denoted by strikes ; and in the sentence, "He went to New York," iVeu> 
York is the object of the relation denoted by the preposition to. 



345. 

Nominative case, 
Possessive case. 
Objective case, 


DECLENSION OF NOUNS 
Singular. Plural. Singular. 

Mother, Mothers. Man, 
Mother's, Mothers'. ' Man's, 
Mother, Mothers. Man, 


Plural. 

Men. 

Men's. 

Men. 



XXVITI. What is the meaning of the How do nouns in the plural ? 339. 

word case? 47. When the plural noun does not end in 

What is meant by the case of nouns? s, how is its possessive formed? 340. Give 

333. an example. 

How many cases have nouns, and what When the singular ends in 55, how is 

are they? 334. tlie possessive case formed ? 341. Give 

What does nominative mean ? 49. an example. 

What is the nominative case ? 335. How is the possessive case of nount 

Give an example. ending in nee formed? 342. Give an ex- 

What do you understand by the subject ample, 

of a verb ? 336. Illustrate it by an exam- Why is not the s added ? 342. 

p!e. What does the word objective mean ? 

What does possessive mean ? 59, 55. 

What does the possessive case denote? What does the objective case of 
337. Give an example. nouns denote? 343 Give an exam- 
How may this case be distinguished pie. 
from the other cases ? 337. What does the declension of nouna 

How do nouns in the singular form mean ? 68. 

their possessive case 7 338. Giveanexam- Will you decline mother? 345. wian* 

pie brother ? hat ? 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE X. 
The possessive case is governed by the following noun, 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
" John's wife returned" 
346. John's is a proper noun, of the masculine gender. 

the THIRD PERSON, SINGULAR NUMBER, POSSESSIVE CASE, and 

governed by wife, by Rule I. 

Wife is a common noun, of the feminine gender, the third 
person, singular number, and nominative case to returned^, 
by Rule VI. 

Returned is an intransitive verb, in the indicative mood, 
imperfect tense — " 1. I returned ; 2. You returned ; 3 t He 
returned, or wife returned" — made in the third person, sim 
gular, and agrees with wife, by Rule VIL 

more exercises in syntax. 

" William's son has come." " William's wife's sister remained 

44 John's brother died." in town." 

" John makes (I.) boys' hats." " Rufus studied Johnson's Diction- 

•* John lost his knife." ary a " 

44 The boys neglected their les- " Mary's bonnet is old.' 5 

sons." " Virtue's reward is sure." (2.) 

" Intemperance ruins its votaries." " Rufus's hat is new." 

SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

" Brothers estate" 
347. If we examine the foregoing example, we will find it difficult to 
ascertain whether the estate is the property of one brother or more ; if of one 
only, an apostrophe should precede the s, thus ; "Brother's estate :" but if it 
belongs to more than one, an apostrophe should follow the s, thus; " Bro- 
thers' estate." Mistakes of this sort often occur ; hence you perceive the 
importance in writing, of attending to the subject of grammar 

" Mans* happiness" 

348. Incorrect, because mans 9 is m the possessive case, sin- 
gular number, and, therefore, the apostrophe should be placed 
before the s, according to the observations above, and Art. 338. 

Wilr you repeat the rule for the posses- Why cannot you tell ? 

sive case ? Rule I. If only one brother is meant, how 

In the sentence, "John's wife return- should the apostrophe be placed? How, 

ed," will you parse John's? wife? re- if more than one? 

turned ? 346. In the phrase, " Mans' happiness." why 

Why is John's in the possessive case ? is it incorrect for the apostrophe to follow 

337. ' the s ? 348. 

What kind of a verb is returned? 346. What is the rule for forming the pos- 

Why ? J53. sessive case of nouns ? 338. 

In what case is wife? 346. Will you now parse man's? 

Why ? 335. We spell the possessive case of man 

ftp 3 " The pupil may next parse the addi- thus, wi-a-n-(apostrophe) s; will you in 

tional exercises in syntax. like manner spell the possessive of John 7 

In the phrase, " Brothers estate," does William ? Rufus ? women ? boys? 

one brother, or rjore than one, own the UJ' The remaining- exercises are to be 

estate ? 347. corrected as well as parsed. 



(I ) Aetive-transitive verb. (2.) Adjective, and belongs to reward, by Rale IV. 



ARTICLES. 49 

SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED, CONTINUED. 

*' Johns son departed." " I discovered Marias faults." 

" Susans sister will learn." " Susan made little Harriets bon- 
" Charles task is too difficult." net." 

*' I have read Willi's poem." " Johnson makes mens shoes." 

EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN.* - 

349. Will you write down two sentences, each containing a 
proper noun, as for example, " William learns grammar" ? One, 
containing a common noun ? Ona, containing a noun of the third 
person singular? One, of the third person plural, and in thg 
nominative case ? One, having a noun of the second person 
singular and of the feminine gender ? One, having a noun the 
name of some article of food 1 One, having a noun the name of 
some quality ? One, having a noun of multitude ? One, having 
vour own name associated with book; as, "John Griscom's 
book"? 



XXIX. OF ARTICLES. 

350. Articles are words put before nouns, to point them 
out, or to limit their meaning. 

351. There are two articles, a or an, and the. 

352. A or an is called the indefinite article, 

353. The is called the definite article. 

354. The article a is called indefinite, because it means no particular per- 
son or thing; as, "a house," "a man," that is, a ny house, an y man. The 
article the is called definite, because it means some particular person or thing ; 
is, "the house," " the man," meaning some particular house, some particu- 
iar man. 

355. ^.becomes an before a vowel, and before a silent A; as, "an acorn," 
"an hour." But if the h be sounded, the a only is used ; as, " a hand," "a 
heart :" except when the word before which the article is placed, has its ac- 
cent on the second syllable; as, "an heroic action," " an historical account." 

356. Before words beginning with u long, a is used instead oian ; as, "a 
union," "a university." " a useful thing." 

357. A is also used for an before the word one, because, in pronouncing 
one, we sound it as if written wun. 

358. The article a or an means one; as, " an ounce," " a pound," that 
is, one ounce, one pound. 

XXIX. What is an article ? 350. But if the h is sounded, which is to be 

What does definite mean ? 78. used ? 355. Give an example. 

What is the called? 353. Why? 354. What exception to this? 355. Give an 

Give an example. example. 

What does indefinite mean ? 81. Do we say, " a union," or "an union" ? 

What is a or an called? 352. Why? " a university," or "on university"? 

354. Give an example. Why ? 356. 

How many articles are there? 351. Do we say, "a one," or "an one"f 

Name them. Why ? 357. 

When does a become an ? 355. Give an What does the article a mean? 353* 

example. Give an example. 

• Either on a rite or in a small manuscript book kep* for the purpose. 

D 5 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

HULE XI. 

The indefinite article a or an belongs to nouns of the 
singular number. 

HULE III. 

The definite article the belongs to nouns of the singular 

or plural number. 

359. Exception. When the adjectives/ew, great many, dozen, hundred, 
thousand, &c. come between the noun and article, the noun to which the 
indefinite article belongs, is plural ; as, " a few men," " a great many men/ 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
" The bird fiies swiftly:' 

360. The is a definite article, and belongs to bird, ac- 
cording to Rule III. 

Bird is a common noun, of the common gender, the third 
person, singular numeer, and in the nominative case to 
flies, by Rule VI. 

Flies is an active- intransitive verb, indicative mood, 
present tense — " 1. I fly ; 2. You fly ; 3. He flies, or bird 
flies" — made in the third person, singular, and agrees 
with bird, by Rule VII. 

Siviftly is an adverb, qualifying fiies, by Rule IX. 

exercises in syntax continued. 

44 The boys have arrived season- " Children attend the school." 

ably." 4 ' William founded a university." 

44 Galileo invented the telescope." " The grass is green." 

" The boy had an ulcer." " Farmers carry hay into the 

44 William gave an historical ac- barn." 

count (1.) of the transaction." " The good scholar obeys his in- 

44 Columbus discovered the conti- structer." 

nent of America." 

SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 
" He had a ulcer" 

361. Incorrect, because we use an before a vowel, except u 
long : a should, therefore be an; thus, " an ulcer." 

sentences to be parsed and corrected, continued. 
44 A enemy approaches." * 4 Three barley corns make a inch.' 

44 James procured a inkstand." "Eight drams make a ounce." 

44 He conferred a honour." " They formed an union." 

44 An unit figure occupies the low- 44 He quoted an hard saying.' 5 
est place in whole numbers." " Thomas has lost an horse." 

What is the rule for the indefinite arti- \£§r The remaining exercises are next U 

cle ? Rule II. be parsed from the hook. 

What exception to this rule? 359. Would you say, " a ulcer,*' or " an ul» 

What is the rule for the indefinite cer" ? Why ? 361. 

article ? Rule III. %^r The pupil should now take the re* 

In the sentence, " the bird flies swift- moining sentences to he corrected. Hi 

ly," how do you parse the ? bird? fiies ? should be required to parse as well as cor* 

swiftly ? 300. red them. 

(I.) Apply Rule VIII. 



ADJECTIVES. 51 



SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

362. Will you write down two sentences, using in one the definite, 
and in the other the indefinite artieie ? One, containing a correctly used 
before u long? One, having a Infinite article correctly used before the 
consonant h ? 

Will you write two nouns, the names of different things in the school- 
oom ? Two, the names of different cities ? One sentence, having a 
proper noun used as a common noun ? 



XXX. OF ADJECTIVES. 

363. An adjective is a word joined to a noun, to describe 
or define it ; as, " An obedient son." 

364. In English, an adjective is varied only to express the 
degrees of comparison. There are three degrees of compari- 
son — the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. 

365. The positive degree simply describes an object; as, 
" John is good." 

366. The comparative degree increases or lessens the posi- 
tive in meaning ; as, " William is better than John." It im- 
plies a comparison between two. 

367. The superlative degree increases or lessens the positive 
to the highest or lowest degree ; as, " Thomas is the best ;" 
" Walter is the worst" 

368. It implies a comparison between three or more. 

369. The simple word, or positive, if a monosyllab 1 ^, (1.) becomes the 
comparative by adding r or er, and the superlative by adding st or est, to 
the end of it ; as, wise, wiser, wisest ; great, greater, greatest. 

370. In words of more than one syllable, the comparison is usually made 
by placing the adverbs more and most before the positive ; as, benevolent, 
more benevolent, most benevolent. 

371. The comparison is sometimes formed by the adverbs less and least ,• 
as, wise, less wise, least wise. 

372. Dissyllables (2.) ending in y ; as, happy, lovely, and in le, after a mute ; 
(3.) as, able, ample, or accented on the last syllable ; as, discreet, polite, easily 

XXX. What is the meaning of the What does it imply ? 308. 
word adjective? 95. What is a monosyllable? 369. 

What is an adjective? 363. Give an How are monosyllables compared? 369. 

•xample. Give an example. 

How many degrees of comparison are How are dissyllables compared ? 372. 
there ? 364. What effect do less and least have on 

Will you name them ? adjectives ? 371. 

What does the positive degree do ? 365. What is a dissyllable ? 372. 
Give an example. Will you spell the comparative an* 

What does the comparative degree do ? superlative degrees of able? lovely? am- 

366. Give an example. pie? discreet? polite? 372. 
What does it imply ? 366. Which are the mutes ? 372. 

Vyhat does superlative mean ? 103. How do words of more than two syl 

What does the superlative degree do? lables almost invariably form their com 

367. Give an example. parison ? 372. 



(1-) A word of one syllable. \2.) A word of two syllables. 

(3.) b, k, p, t, and c and g hard, are mutea 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

admit of o>r and est ; as, happier, happiest ; abler, ablest, &c. Words of 
more than two syllables hardly ever admit of these terminations. 

373. In some words, the superlative is formed by adding the adverb most 
to the end of them ; as, nethermost, uttermost, uppermost. 

374. Some adjectives, having in themselves a superlative signification, do 
not admit of comparison ; as, extreme, perfect, right, wrong, infinite, cease- 
less, supreme, omnipotent, eternal. 

375. By adding ish to adjectives, we have a slight degree of comparison 
below the positive ; as, black, blackish ; salt, saltish. 

376. Very expresses a degree of quality, but not the highest ; as, " good," 
" ver y good." 

377. Words used in counting and numbering are called numeral adjectives ; 
as, one, two, three ; first, second, third. These adjectives are not compared. 

378. An adjective put without a noun, with the definite article before it, 
becomes a noun in sense and meaning, and may be considered as" such in 
parsing; as, " Providence rewards the good, and punishes the bad." 



EULB IV. 

Adjectives belong to the nouns which they describe. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 



John 



is sincere: 



379. John is a proper noun, of the third person, singu- 
lar NUMBER, MASCULINE GENDER, and in the NOMINATIVE CASE 

to is, by Rule VI. 

Is is a neuter verb, in the INDICATIVE mood, present 
tense — " 1. I am ; 2. You are ; 3. He or John is," — -made in 
the third person singular, and agrees with John, according 
to Rule VII. 

Sincere is an adjective, — " sincere, more sincere, most sin- 
cere,"- made in the positive degree, and belongs to John, by 
Rule IV. 

exercises in syntax continued. 



You are studious." 

John is more studious.' 

William is most studious." 

Mary is intelligent." 

James is active." 

Thomas is less active." 

Charles is happy." 

Mary is tall. Susan is taller." 

No composition is perfect." 

Religion makes its votaries happy. 



One man has come." 
Two men have departed." 
Twenty men will sail." 
James w T rote his name on the first 

page." 
Here comes a great man." 
Here comes a greater man." 
Here comes the greatest man." 
The first fleet contained five hun- 
dred men." 



Is perfect compared ? Why ? 374. 

Will you name several others that are 
not compared ? 374. 

How is the superlative formed in the 
word upper? 3T3. 

What is the effect of ish added to ad- 
jectives? 375. Give an example. 

What is the force of very in compari- 
son ? 376. 

What are numeral adjectives? 377. 
Give an example. Are they compared ? 
377. 

Will you spell the comparative and 



superlative degrees of good ? ill! much? 
little ? 

When is an adjective to be considered 
a noun ? 378. 

What is the rule for the adjective ? IV. 

In the phrase, " John is sincere," how 
do you parse John ? is ? sincere ? 379. 
Why is sincere in the positive degree ? 
365. Why do you call is a neuter verb? 
157. 

tfjT Let the pupil next take the exercise* 
that follow, and parse as before. 



PRONOUNS. 53 

XXXI. 

380. Double comparatives and superlatives, since they add nothing 
to the sense, should be avoided ; as, worser, more wiser, &c. ; also, 
lesser, supremest, most infinite, &c. 

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Q. Will you write down two sentences, each containing" a different 
adjective in the positive degree ? Two, with adjectives in the comparative 
degree ? Two, with adjectives in the superlative degree ? 

Q. Will you supply such adjectives in the following- sentences as will 

make sense ? "A boy studies his lesson." " A boy deserves 

punishment." " A man helps the man." " Merchants own 

ships." " The instructer loves scholars." " William is a 

scholar, Rufus is a one, but Thomas is the one that I ever saw." 



XXXII. OF PRONOUNS. 

331. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid 
a disagreeable repetition of the noun. 

382. A personal pronoun is so called, because it invari- 
ably represents the same person. There are five personal 
pronouns — I, thou or you, he, she, it. They have person, 
number and case, like nouns ; and those of the third person 
have gender also. 

383. / is the first person, thou the second, he, she, or it, the 
third. He is masculine, she is feminine, and it is neuter. 

384. Pronouns, like nouns, have three cases — the nomi- 
native, the possessive, and the objective ; and two numbers — • 
the singular and plural. 

385. Mine and thine, instead of my and thy, were formerly used in the 
solemn style, before nouns and adjectives beginning with a vowel or silent 
k; as, "Blot out all mine iniquities." 

XXXI. Is it correct to say, " A lesser XXXII. What does the word pronoun 

evil?" Why not? 360. signify ? 120. 

Will you correct the following inaccu- What is a pronoun 7 38J. 

racies in comparison as I read them to Why is a personal pronoun so called 7 

you ? 382. 

" He is intelligenter." How many personal pronouns are 

u She is the most wisest." there, and what are they ? 382. 

41 A worser evil." Why is this number said to include all 

"William is a bad boy; Joseph is a the pronouns? 134. 

worser one." Which is the first person ? the second 7 

" He gave a more stronger proof of the the third ? 383. 

fact than the other." To which of the pronouns do we apply 

" The pleasures of the mind are more gender? 383- 

(1.) preferable than those of the body." Why is not gender applied to the firs* 

"That table is round, but this is a and second persons ? 136. 

rounder one, and that is the roundest of Which is masculine ? 383. which femi 

the three." nine? 383. which neuter? 383. 

" This is more square." How many cases have pronouns, and 

" A more greater concern." what are they ? 384. 

" The most fairest of all the daughters How many numbers? 384. 

of Eve." Will you decline I? thou? he? she ? 

" His mother's extremest joy." it ? 127. 
* 

(1.) For rnort preferable than, r«ad preferable to. 

5* 



54 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



XXXIII. COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

386. Compound personal pronouns are formed by adding 
the word self, in the plural selves, to the simple pronouns ; as, 
himself, themselves, &c. 

SINGULAR. 

Myself, 
Wanting. 
Myself, 
Thyself, or 
Yourself, 



PERSON. 


CASE. 


First. 


Nom. 




Poss. 




Obj. 


Second. 


Nom. 




Poss. 




Obj. 


Third. 


Nom. 




Poss. 




Obj. 




Nom. 




Poss. 




Obj. 




Nom. 




Poss. 




Obj. 



or~) 

, s 



Thyself, or 

Yourself, 

Himself, 

Himself, 
Herself, 

Herself, 
Itself, 

Itself, 



PLURAL. 

Ourselves. 

Ourselves. 
Yourselves. 



Yourselves. 
Themselves. 

Themselves. 
Themselves. 

Themselves. 
Themselves. 

Themselves. 



RULE V. 

Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they 
stand, in gender, number and. person. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

" John found his knife." 

387. John is a proper noun, of the masculine gender, the third 
person, singular number, and nominative case to found, by 
Rule VI. 

Found is an active-transitive verb, in the indicative mood, 
imperfect tense — "1. I found; 2. You found; 3. He or John 
found" — made in the third person singular, and agrees with John, 
by Rule VII. 

His is a personal pronoun, of the third person singular, 
masculine gender, and agrees with John, according to Rule V. ; in 
the possessive case, and governed by knife, by Rule I. 

Knife is a common noun, of the third person singular, neuter 
gender, the objective case, and governed by found, according to 
Rule VIII. 



Of what number and person is minet 
9urs ? me ? we ? they ? thine ? you ? 
yours? 127. 

Of what gender, number and person is 
he ? she ? it ? 

Of what number, person and case is 
they? ours? his? hers? mine? 

In what style were mine and thine for- 
merly used ? 385. 

XXXIII. How are the compound per- 
6onal pronouns formed ? 386. 



What is the rule for the agreement of 
personal pronouns in the phrase, " John 
found his knife ?" V. 

How do you parse John ? 387. 

Will you parse John in the phrase, 
M John found his knife ?" 387. 

Will you parse found? his? knife? 
387. 

££#" The learner should next parse the re- 
maining exercises in Syntax from the book, 
and then take the exercises to be written. 



PRONOUNS. 55 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

1. 

14 James obtained his request." " Ye despise reproof." 

* I will assist you." " They mend their pens." 

**■ He will receive his reward." " Mary tore her handkerchief." 

" She misused him." " Virtue has its reward." 

** Sin ruins its votaries." " She deceived them." 

2. 

M An indulgent father will reprove " John is in distress, and I wil! 

his son when (1.) he deserves assist him." 

it." " I found Mary and her mother in 

00 A dutiful son gladdens the hearts trouble, and (2.) comforted (3.) 

of his parents." them." 

EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Q. Will you compose two sentences, each having a different personal 
pronoun of the first person ? One, having a pronoun of the first person 
plural ? 

Q. Will you fill up the following sentences with suitable pronouns 
so as to make sense ? " — lost my hat, but found — again." " Let 
Harriet have — book, for — will need — to get her lesson." " The 
travellers lost — way, and the boys conducted — to — homes." 

Q. Will you fill up the following broken sentences with suitable 

words to make sense ? " Intemperance evil." " Washington 

father of his ." " Columbus America." " Boston 

inhabitants." "The ocean is miles wide." " first 

man." 



XXXIV. OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

388. In the sentence, " Both wealth and poverty are temptations; that 
tends to excite pride, this discontent;" you perceive that the word that 
represents wealth, and the word this poverty. T/us and that do, therefore, 
resemble pronouns, and may, for this reason, be called pronouns. 

389. When I say, " This house is mine, that barn is yours," the words 
this and that are joined to nouns like adjectives, to define or specify them : 
they may, on this account, be called adjectives. 

390. Adjective pronouns, then, are words that resemble both 
pronouns and adjectives. These pronouns are sometimes call- 
ed pronominal adjectives, or specifying adjectives. 

391. The adjective pronouns may be divided into three 
gorts — the distributive, the demonstrative, and the indefinite. 

392. The distributive are those that relate to persons oi 
things, taken separately and singly. 

XXXIV. What are adjective pro- One in which they resemble adjectives ? 

flouns ? 390. 389. 

Why are they so called? 388, 380. Into how many sorts may these pro- 

By what other name have these pro- nouns be divided, and what are they ? 

Ooiins been called? 3 ( J0. 391. 

Will you give an example in which What is a distributive pronoun? 

these words resemble pronouns? 388. 392. 

(1.) Advert* (2.) Conjunction. (3.) Apply Rule XI. 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

393. DISTRIBUTIVE (1.) PRONOUNS. 
Each, every, either, and sometimes neither. 

394. Each relates to two or more persons or things, taken separately j 
as, " Each of his brothers is doing well." 

395. Every relates to several persons or things, and signifies each one 
of them, taken separately ; as, " Every man must account for himself." 

396. Either relates to two persons or things only, taken separately, and 
signifies the one or the other; as, "I have not seen either. 1 * Hence, to 
say, "'Either of the three," is incorrect. 

397. Neither means not either; that is, not one nor the other; aa f 
" Neither of my friends was there." 

398. The demonstrative (2.) pronouns are those which 
precisely point out the things to which they relate. 

399. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
Sing. Plu. 

This, These. 

That, Those. 

Former, Former. 

Latter, Latter. 

400. This and these refer to the nearest persons or things, — that and those 
to the most distant ; as, " These gloves are superior to those.'' 1 " Both wealth 
and poverty are temptations ; that tends to excite pride, this discontent." 

401. The indefinite are those that refer to things in an 
indefinite or general manner. 

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

402. Some, other, any, one, all, such, none. Of these 
pronouns, one and other are declined like nouns. Another is 
declined in the singular, but it wants the plural. 

Sing. Plu. 

403. Norn. Other, Others. 
Poss. Other's, Others'. 
Obj. Other, Others. 

Sing. Plu. 

404. Nom. One, Ones. 
Poss. One's, Ones'. 
Obj. One, Ones. 

We say, "This book," but, "These books;" also, "One man," 
" Twenty men :" hence, 

405. Note I. Adjective pronouns and numerals must agree 
in number with the nouns to which they belong. 

Why is it so cal'.ed 7 393. Which are singular / 399. Which plu. 

Which are they ? 393. al ? 399. 

What does each refer to ? 394. Give What do this and these refer to ? 400. 

3 Wha'dts every relate to 7 395. Give .^^^ *™ Kfcr l ° ? Gi " 
an example. „ T u ? ,' 

What does either relate to 7 396. Give What does indefinite mean ? 81. 

an example. What is an indefinite pronoun ? 401. 

What doe's neither mean ? 397. Which are they 7 402. 

What does demonstrative mean ? 398. Will you decline other ? 403. 

What are demonstrative pronouns? Will you decline owe? 404. . 
398. What note do you apply in parsing ad« 

Which are they ? 399. jective pronouns ? Note I. 

(1.) So called from distribute, to divide among revered. 
(20 So called from demonstrate, to prove or show precisely. 



PRONOUNS. 57 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
" These two books belong to me" 

406. These is an adjective pronoun of the demonstrative kind, 
In the plural number, and belongs to books, according to Note I. 

Two is a numeral adjective, and belongs to books, by Note I. 
Books, belong, &c. are parsed as before. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

u Every man performs his part in " These men might remain with 

creation." us." 

•Each man arrived at his station." "Those men make many pretences 

•Either party can repair the in- to religion." 

jury." "All rational beings desire happi- 

M Some persons cannot acquire ness." 

wealth." " By application almost any • boy 

"Many people obtain riches with may acquire an honorable 

apparently little exertion." rank in his class." 

" One boy labors for his improve- " Good and virtuous men will, 

ment." sooner (1.) or later (1.), attain 

" This man neglects his affairs." to happiness." 

" The old bird feeds her young ones" 

407. Ones is an indefinite pronoun, representing birds ; in the 

COMMON GENDER, THIRD PERSON PLURAL, in the OBJECTIVE CASE, and 

governed by feeds, agieeably to Rule VIII. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

"One boy influences many others." others spend their time in idleness; 
" None act their part too well." the former will receive praise, the 

" Some scholars study diligently latter censure." 

We cannot say, " Them run," but, " They run:" hence, 

Note II. When a noun or pronoun is the subject of the 

verb, it should be in the nominative case. 

It is very common for persons in conversaiion to say, " Them books," 

" Them knives," &c. instead of " Those books," " Those knives," &c. 

The incorrectness here alluded to consists in substituting a personal in the 

place of an adjective pronoun : hence, 

Note III. The pronoun them should not be used in the place 
of these or those. 

In the phrase, M These two hooks," &c. " Them will go." 

will you parse these? two! 406. " Him and me went to church." 

Will you now take the book, and parse " Art thee well ?" 

the remaining exercises under Note I. ? " Him who is diligent will improve." 

In the phrase, "The old bird feeds her Would you say, " Them knives," or, 

young ones," will you parse ones ? 407. " These knives" ? Why ? III. 

Will you correct by Note I. the follow In what does the incorrectness con- 
jug examples, as I read them to you ? sist ? III. 

" He will not come this two hours." Will you correct the following expres. 

44 1 dislike those sort of books." sions ? 

41 1 have two canes ; you may have any " Them boys are very idle." 
of them." " Bring me them pens." 

Do we say, " Tlicy run," or, " Them "Which of them three things do you 

run?" Why? Note II. prefer?* 1 

Will you now correct, by Note II. the *£f* The pupil may next take the exer 

following examples as I read them to you? rises to be written. 

(I.) Adverb. 



53 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Q. Will you compose two sentences, each having a different adjective 
pronoun ? One, having- a demonstrative pronoun ? One, having an in- 
definite pronoun used as a noun ? 

Q. Will you fill up with pronouns suitable to make sense the follow- 
ing phrases ? " When Harriet found — book, — tore — , and then flung 
— away." " — man likes — farm, — merchandise." 

Q. Will you compose a proper example under Rule I.? One under 
Rule II. ? Rule III. ? Rule IV.? Rule V.? Rule VI.? 



XXXV. OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

408. In the sentence, "That, man is happy, who lives virtuously," the 
word who is a pronoun, because it stands for a noun (the noun man), and it is 
a relative, because it relates or refers to this noun in the same sentence : hence, 

409. A relative pronoun is a word that usually stands for 
some noun before it in the same sentence. 

410. There are three relative pronouns, viz. 

411. Who, which, and that. 

412. Who is used in speaking of persons ; as, " The man 
who came." 

413. Which is used in speaking of animals or things ; as, 
" The bird which sings," " The tree which I planted." 

414. Which, however, is used in speaking of persons, when we wish to 
distinguish one of two individuals, or a particular person among many 
others ; as, " Which of the two is he ?" " Which of them has gone ?" 

415. That, as a relative, is often used, in speaking either of 
persons or things, in the place of who or which ; as, 

"The boy that reads," or, "The boy who reads;" "The bird that 
flew," or, "The bird which flew;" "The bench that was made," or, 
" The bench which was made." 

That is used in preference to who or which, in the following cases : — 

1. In speaking both of persons and things ; as, " The man and the beast 
that I saw, perished." 

2. In speaking of children ; as, " The child that I met." 

3. After the adjective same; as, "He is the same man that we saw 
yesterday." 

4. After the superlative degree; as, "He is the wisest man that the 
world ever produced." 

5. After the relative who ; as, " Who that reflects." 

415 — 1. Exception. Thai, as a relative, cannot take the preposition im- 
mediately before it ; as, " He is the same man with that you were acquaint- 
ed." For with that, read with whom. It is remarkable, however, that, 
when the arrangement is a little varied, the word that admits the preposi- 
tion ; as, " He is the same man that you were acquainted with." 

XXXV. In the sentence, " That man speaking of persons ? Give an example 
is happy, who lives virtuously," what 414. 
part of speech is who ? Why ? 408. What When may that be used ? 415. 

When do we use which? Give an ex- 415 ' *' 2 ' 3 ' 4 ' 5 * 
ample. 413. What exception is mentioned? 415 — h 

In what cases do we use which, in Give an example. 415—1. 



PRONOUNS. 59 

116 — 1. We can say, "The man who," or " The men who," using the 
relative who in speaking either of one man or more than one : who, then, is 
of both numbers, and is thus declined : 

Singular. Plural. 

Norn. Who, Who. 

Poss. Whose, Whose. 

Obj. Whom, Whom. 

417. Which and that are of both numbers, but they are not declined, ex- 
cept that whose is sometimes used as the possessive case of which ; as, •' Is 
there any other doctrine whose followers are punished ?" 

418. Whose, used in the manner last described, is made to represent three 
words ; as, " Philosophy whose end," for " the end of which." 

419. Antecedent signifies going before. 

420. The noun or pronoun which goes before the relative, and to which, 
the relative refers, is therefore called the antecedent of the relative ; as, 
" John, who has gone." Here, John is the antecedent of who. 

421. When you are told that who, which, and that are relatives, you should 
not get the impression that the last two are always relatives ; for that is a 
relative only when it is used in the sense of who or which; that is, when ?*;/«> 
or which may be used in its place, without destroying the sense ; as, " Here 
is the knife that I found," which can be altered to " Here is the knife which 
I found," without injury to the sense. 

422. That, when it points out or specifies some particular person or thing, 
is reckoned an adjective pronoun. When not used as a relative, nor as an 
adjective pronoun, it is reckoned a conjunction; as, "He studies that he 
may learn." 

423. Hence it appears that the word that may be used sometimes as a rela- 
tive pronoun, sometimes as an adjective pronoun, and sometimes as a con- 
junction. 

424. Since relative pronouns stand for nouns, as well as personal pro- 
nouns, they should therefore agree with nouns in the same particulars and 
by the same rule. Rule V. will therefore apply to both. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

" That man is happy who lives virtuously.' 99 

425. That is a demonstrative pronoun, of the singular 
number, and belongs to man, by Note I. 

Who is a RELATIVE PRONOUN, of the MASCULINE GENDER, 

third person singular, and agrees with man, by Rule V. It 
is in the nominative case to lives, according to Rule VI. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

" That man is fortunate who es- " I met the same man in the market 
capes censure. to-day (1.), that I met yesterdajr 

" The girl whom I saw, perished." in the street. 

How many numbers has joAo? 416 When is that an adjective pronoun? 

Will you decline it ? 410 — 1. Give an example. 422. 

How many numbers have which and When a conjunction ? Give an exam- 

that? Are they declined? 417. pie. 422. 

What exception to this? 417. How many different parts of speech 

When whose is used as the possessive may that represent ? 423. 

case of which, how many words does it What is the ru!** for the agreement of 

represent? Give an example. 418. relative pronouns? 424. 

What is the meaning of antecedent? Will you parse that, in the phraso, 

419. " That man" ? 425. 

What is the antecedent of a pronoun ? In the sentence, " That man is happy 

Give an example. 420. who lives virtuously," will you parse 

Is that always a relative ? 421. who? 425. 

When is it a relative ? Give an exam- Will you now take the book, and parse 

pie. 421. the remaining exercises? 



(1J Adverb. 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

44 You, who came first, should retire 44 That house, which stands on the 
first." hill, once (1.) belonged to me." 

44 You taught the boy whose hat I "The boy whom I instruct learns 
found." well." 

SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 
" The man which I saw." 

426. Incorrect ; because, in speaking of persons, who 9 whose, 
or whom is generally to be used. It should therefore read, 
" The man whom 1 saw." 

SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED, CONTINUED. 

*The bird whom I killed had made 44 Thou who are in prosperity must 
her nest." assist me in adversity." 

44 The man which visited me has 44 He which shuns vice does gene- 
lefl town." rally practise virtue." 

"That man is happy whom is vir- 44 1, who lives by your charity, should 
tuous." be grateful." 

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Q. Will you construct a sentence containing the relative who ? One, 
containing which? One, containing that? 

Q. Will you fill up the following sentences with relatives correctly 

used? "The man— — sins shall die." "The boy studies will 

learn." "The bird sung so sweetly has flown." Will you fill up 

the following with one or more words that will make sense ? " Intempe- 
rance evils." " if truth sorry." 

Q. Will you embrace in different sentences, each of the following words ? 
Washington,* Columbus, Captain Cook, Indians, Wisdom, Riches, James 
Monroe. 



XXXVI. OF COMPOUND AND INTERROGATIVE 

PRONOUNS. 

427. " I took what you gave me." 

4 ' I took that which you gave me." 

44 1 took the thing which you gave me." 

44 1 took those things which you gave me." 

428. By examining the foregoing sentences, you will see that the word 
what , in the first example, means the same as the words in italics in the suc- 
cessive ones : the word what, then, is clearly a pronoun ; and because it 
stands for more than one word, it is called a compound pronoun. The word 
before the relative which, in the phrase " that which," or " the thing which," 
is the antecedent of which. Hence, 

429. What is a compound relative pronoun, including 
both the antecedent and the relative, and is generally equiva- 
lent to THAT WHICH. 

Instead of saying, " The man which I tences which mean the same as " I too* 

saw," what should I say? Why? 426. what you gave me" ? 427. 

Will you correct and parse the remain- What words, then, does what stand for 7 

ing exercises, and then take the exercises 428. 

to be written ? Why is what a pronoun ? 428. 

XXXVI. Will you repeat those sen- Why a compound pronoun ? 428. 

(1.) Adverb. 

* Thus, " Washington was a true patriot," &c. The pupil may write several sentences on each word. 



PRONOUNS. 61 

430. Who, which, anA what have sometimes the words ever or soever an- 
nexed (I.) to them : and each combination of this sort is called a compound 
relative; as, whoever, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, &c. They are not 
often used 

431. Who, which, and what are called interrogates, or relatives of the 
interrogative kind, when they are used in asking questions; as, " Who is 
he ?" 4< Which is the book ?" " What are you doing t" These relatives, 
you perceive, have no antecedents, but relate to some word or phrase con- 
tained in the answer, which is called a subsequent, because it follows after 
the relative; as, "Whom did you see?" Ans. "John." Here John is 
the subsequent to which whom refers. 

432. Hence it follows, that antecedent and subsequent are opposed to each 
Other in meaning ; the former signifying going before, the latter following after, 

433. Whether was formerly made use of to express interrogation*; as, 
14 Whether of these shall I choose f" but it is now seldom used, the inter- 
fogative which supplying its place. 

434. Which, what, and, as we have already seen, that, when joined to 
nouns, are adjeciive pronouns ; as, " unto which promise our twelve tribes." 

435. When what and which are joined to nouns in asking questions, they 
are called interrogative adjective pronouns ; as, " Which horse did he take ?" 

436. In some instances, we find what used in the sense of an interjection ; 
as, " What ! take my money, and then my life ?" 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
" / will leave what is useless." 

437. What, in the example above, means the same as, " that which," or, 
11 the thing which ;" we will, therefore, in parsing it, bear in mind that it 
has the government and agreement of two separate words. We will first 
parse it as standing for thing, and secondly for which. 

What is a compound relative pronoun, and is equivalent to 
M that which," or, " the thing which." In representing thing, it 
may be considered a pronoun of the third person singular, neu- 
ter gender, in the objective case, and governed by leave, accord- 
ing to Rule VIII. 

What, in representing which, may be considered a relative pro- 
noun of the third person singular, neuter gender, and relates 
to thing for its antecedent, according to Rule V. and in the nomi- 
native case to is, by Rule VI. 

Is is a neuter verb, in the indicative mood, present tense — 
"1. lam; 2. You are; 3. He or which is" — made in the third per- 
son singular, and agrees with which, the relative part of the pro- 
noun what, according to Rule VII. 

Useless is an adjective, in the positive degree, and belongs to 
what, by Rule IV. 

H< w may what be described ? 429. When are what, which, and that adje« 

Will you give three examples of com- tive pronouns? Give an example. 434. 
pound pronouns formed by annexing ever Which of the relatives are sometimes in- 

or soever? 430. terrogative adjective pronouns ? When? 

What is the meaning of annexed? 435. 
430. When I say, " What ! rob me of my 

When are who, which, and what called money, and then take my life ?" in what 

anterrogatives ? 43J. sense is what used ? 436. \ 

What are the nouns called, to which In the sentence, "I will leave what is 

intorrogatives refer ? 431. useless," how do you parse what? is? 

What is the meaning of subsequent? useless? 437. 
432. What does what stand for ? 437. 

Why so called? 431. Do you parse it as one word or two? 

In the phrase, " Whom did you see ?" What two ? 437. 
/ins. " John ;" which word is the subse- %jjr The pupil may vow parse the re- 

|uent ? 431. maining exercises on the pronoun what. 

(1.) Placed after. 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

* James will do what is proper." " William demands what I cannot 

" You heard what I said." give." 

" Whatever improves delights him." " They advocate what is excellent.' 



XXXVII. OF THE VERB. 

438. A verb is a word that expresses action or being. 
Verbs are of three kinds — active, passive, and neuter. 

439. An active verb expresses action, and the actor is 
always the nominative case ; as, " John runs." Active verbs 
are either transitive or intransitive. 

440. An active verb is transitive, when it either has or may- 
have an object after it, on which the action terminates ; as, 
" John beats William." 

441. An active verb is intransitive, when it neither has nor 
can have an object after it. 

442. Passive means suffering or receiving. 

443. When I say, " John is beaten by William," is beaten is a verb, 
because it expresses action ; and it is a passive verb, because it expresses 
the action received by John ; and if John receives the action, then he is the 
object of it : hence, 

444. A passive verb expresses action or effect received. 

445. The object is always its subject or nominative case. 

446. Active nominative, or actor, " John strikes William." 

447. Passive nominative, or object, " William is struck by 
John." 

448. By examining the foregoing examples, you will see that when the 
verb is active, its nominative is likewise active ; and when the verb is pas- 
sive, its nominative is likewise passive. 

449. The passive voice is a convenient mode of expression on occasions 
when we wish to state what has been done, without exposing the author ; 
thus, instead of saying, " William struck John," I can, to avoid alluding 
to William, say, " John was struck." 

XXXVII. What is the meaning of In the example, "John is beaten by 

verb?* William," which is the verb? Why? 

Why so called ? 143. What kind ? Why ? 443. 

What is a verb ? 438. Which word is the object ? Why ? 443. 

What is an active verb ? 439. What, then, is a passive verb ? 444. 

> What is always its nominative? Give Which is the nominative to a passiw 

an example. 439. verb, the agent or the object ? 445. 

What is the meaning of transitive?^ Is the nominative to an active verb a«- 

of intransitive? I tive or passive ? Give an example. 448. 

How may active verbs be divided ? 439. Is the nominative to a passive verb ac 

When is an active verb transitive? tive or passive? Give an example. 448. 
Give an example. 440. In what particular is the passive voice 

When is an active verb intransitive? a convenient form of expression ? Givo 

Give an example. 441. an example. 449. 

What is the meaning of passive! 442. What is the meaning of neuter 1§ 

A> -, , — — , . - ■■ -* 

* See question to 142. t See question to 150. J See question to 152. § See questiot to 157. 



MOOD. 63 

450. A neuter verb is one that is neither active nor passive, 
expressing simply either being or existence in a certain state ; 
as, u He sits" " He is at home." 



XXXVIII. MOOD, OR MODE. 

451. Mood, or mode, is the manner of representing action 
Car being. 

452. The indicative mood is used simply for indicating or 
declaring a thing, or asking a question ; as, " I walk ;" ** Do I 
walk?" 

453. The potential mood is used for expressing possi- 
bility, liberty, power, will, or obligation, either with or without 
asking a question ; as, " I may go ;" " May I go ?" " He must 
read," &c. 

454. Of the subjunctive mood. The term subjunctive signifies subjoin- 
ed or added to. 

455. When I say, " I will go, if he desire it," the phrase, " if he desire 
it," is added on to the one before it : hence, we say, " if he desire it," is 
in the subjunctive mood. The term, however, is limited to such sentences 
as are preceded by the conjunctions if, unless, although, except, lest, &c, 
which imply doubt or some uncertainty. 

456. The subjunctive mood is used for expressing doubt or 
uncertainty. 

457. A verb in the subjunctive mood may be expressed in two different 
forms. It is equally correct to say, "If he is poor, he is respected," and, 
"It he be studious, he will excel." The verbs be and is are both in the 
present tense ; and since each has the conjunction if before it, each is in 
the subjunctive mood. 

458. The phrase, " If he be studious," means the same as, " If he will 
be studious ;" it therefore plainly implies future time. 

459. On the contrary, in the phrase, "If he is poor," the sense plainly 
is, "If he is now, at the present time, poor," without any reference to 
future time. 

460. Hence it appears, that, in one form of the verb, doubt only is im- 
plied ; and in the other, both doubt and future time. 

What is a neuter verb ? Give an exam- How is the term subjunctive limited ? 

pie. 450. 455. 

How many kinds of verbs are there, What is the subjunctive mood used 

and what are they? 438. for? 45(5. 

XXXVIII. What is the meaning of How many different forms has it? 457. 

•mood! 166. Give an example of each. 457. 

What is mood? 451. In what tense are the verbs be and ist 

What is the meaning of indicative? 457. 

£68. In what mood is each with the con. 

What is the indicative mood used for ? junction if before it ? 457. 

Give an example. 452. What does, * If he be studious," mean, 

What is the meaning of potential? 212. as it respects time ? 458. 

What is the potential mood used for? What tense, then, is referred to ? 458. 

Give an example. 453. What does, " If he is poor," mean, in 

What is the meaning of subjunctive? respect to time? 459. 

454. What idea, then, is implied in the one 
In what mood is, " If he desire it ?" form ? 460. 

455. What two ideas in the other form ? 460 



€4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

461. The verb is corresponds with the common form of the verb to be, 
in the indicative mood, present tense; as, "I am, you are, he is:" — we 
will, therefore, when the verb is varied as usual, call it the common form 
of the subjunctive mood ; and when the verb is not varied in the different 
persons, we will call it the subjunctive form, since this form is peculiar to 
this mood. You should here be informed that this distinction relates only 
to the present tense, it being customary to vary the terminations of the verb 
in the remaining tenses, as usual. 

462. The following general rules will direct you in the proper use of the 
subjunctive mood : 

463. When any verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense 5 
has a reference to future time, we should use the 

SUBJUNCTIVE FORM. 

Present Tense, 

464. Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love. 1. If we love. 

2. If thou or you love. 2. If ye or you love. 

3. If he love. 3. If they love. 

465. When a verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, 
has no reference to future time, we should use the 

COMMON FORM. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love. 1. If we love. 

2. If thou lovest, or? 2. If ye love, or") 
If you love. 3 If vou love. 3 

3. If he loves. 3. If they love. 

466. Other conjunctions, besides if, are used before the subjunctive 
mood. If is perhaps used most frequently, because it implies doubt more 
strongly than most others. 

467. By the foregoing, it will be seen that wlien the verb is in the subjunc- 
tive form, some auxiliary verb is always understood ; as, " He will not be par- 
doned unless he repent," that is, " unless he will repent ;" " If thou ever 
return, thou shouldst be thankful," that is, " if thou shouldst ever return." 

468. A verb in the indicative mood is converted into the subjunctive, 
common form, simply by placing a conjunction, implying doubt, before it ; 
as, "I walk," the indicative mood, becomes subjunctive by prefixing if; 
thus, "If I walk." 

469. In like manner, a verb in the potential may be changed to the sub- 
junctive ; as, " I can go," is the potential ; " If I can go," the subjunctive. 

470. Of the imperative mood When I say, " John, mind your book," 
I command John to do something ; and because imperative means command* 
ing, we say that mind, in the phrase above, is in the imperative mood. 



With what does the verb is corre- What does, " He will not be pardoned 

spond ? 461. unless he repent," mean ? 467. 

How is the verb varied in the common What, then, is understood ? 467. 

form of the subjunctive mood ? 461. " If thou ever return, thou shouldst be 

Why called common ? How varied in thankful :" what does this mean ? 467. 
the subjunctive form ? Why called sub- What, then, is understood ? 467. 

ia How e is ? ttus-distinction limited? 461. ™ at '" alwa r S ***"*""* in thi9 

How are the remaining tenses varied? How miy a yerb fa tne indicativo 

When do we use the subjunctive form ? ™ od be converted into the subjunctive ? 

liru .,~.. .„„!„„,» .♦>„> X r^u r~..*i n *'*»;- How can the potential be changed to 

,o^'S„TheTrisIn^T/ b 4^ mth ' S «- -bjunctive Joive an e Xam p,l 4.9. 

When do we use the common form? * n what mood is, "John, mind your 

465 studies?" Why? 470. 

Why is the conjunction if used most What is the meaning of imperative? 

frequently in the suojunctive mood? 466. 470. 



MOOD. 65 

471. This mood, for reasons assigned before, (214.) embraces the follow- 
ing particulars : 

1. Command; as, "John, sit up." 

2. Entreaty ; as, "Do visit me." 

3. Exhorting; as, "Remember my counsel/' 

4. Permitting ; as, "Go in peace." 

472. The imperative mood, then, is used for commanding, 
entreating, exhorting, or permitting. 

473. The application of this mood is limited to the second person ; as, 
** John, come to me ;" because, in uttering a command, making an entreaty, 
&c. we must necessarily address some one ; hence, you can see the reason 
why this mood has but one person, viz. the second. 

474. We cannot, with any propriety, command a person to-day, or in 
present time, to do any thing in past time, yesterday for instance; con- 
sequently a verb in this mood cannot have any past tense. 

475 When I command a person to do any thing, the performance of the 
command must take place in a period of time subsequent to that of the com- 
mand ; that is, in future time ; but the command itself must, from the very 
nature of the case, take place in present time: this mood, therefore, can- 
not, strictly speaking, have any future tense : hence, 

476. A verb in the imperative mood must be in the present tense, and in 
the second person. 

477. Of the infinitive mood. In the phrases, " John begins to sing," 
" The boys begin to sing," " Thou beginnest to sing," you perceive that 
♦he verb to sing is not varied to correspond with the number and person of 
Us different agents, John, the boys, and thou : hence, to sing is said not to 
be limited either by person or number. 

478. This mood, then, is properly denominated infinitive, signifying not 
limited : hence, 

479. The infinitive mood is used to express an action not 
limited either by person or number. 

480. To, the usual sign of this mood, is sometimes understood ; as, " Let 
me go," instead of, " Let me to go ;" " I heard him say it," for, " I heard 
him to say it." This little word to, when used before verbs in this man- 
ner, is not a preposition, but forms a part of the verb, and, in parsing, 
should be so considered. 

481. From the foregoing, it appears that there are five 
moods — the indicative, the imperative, the potential, the sub- 
junctive, and the infinitive. 

How many particulars does this mood Whal is the meaning of infinitive t 

embrace ? 471. Why so many ? 214. 4T8. 

What, then, is the imperative mood In what mood is sing, in the phrases, 

used for? 472. Give an example of com- " John begins to sing," " The boys begin 

mantling? one of entreating? one of to sing," "Thou beginnest to sing?" 

exhorting? one of permitting? 471. 477, 478. 

How many persons has this mood ? 473. In what particulars is this mood reck. 

What person is it? 473. oned not to be limited? 477. 

Has this mood any past tense ? Why ? What, then, is the infinitive mood 

474. used for? 479. 

When I command a person, when, if What is the usual sign of this mood? 

it all, must the performance of the com- 480. 

mand take place? 475. Is it always expressed ? Give an ex- 

When, or in what time, must the com- ample. 480. 

mand itself be given ? 475. How is the sign to to be parsed? 

Has this .i.ood, then, any future tense ? 480 

475. Why parsed with the verb ? 480. 
How many tenses, then, has it ? How How many moods are there, and whal 

many persons ? 470. are they ? 481. 

E 6* 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



XXXIX. OF TENSE. 

482. The present tense expresses what is now taking place \ 
as, " John swims." 

483. This tense is often employed to express the actions of persons long 
since dead ; as, " Seneca reasons and moralizes well." 

484. The present tense, preceded by the words when, before, after, a* 
soon as, &c, is sometimes used to point out the relative time of a future 
action; as, " When he arrives, he will hear the news." 

485. This tense is elegantly applied to qualities and things which are in 
Hheir nature unchangeable; as, "Truth is eternal;" "William boldly 
asserted there was no God;" properly, " is no God." 

486. In animated (1.) historical narrations, (2.) this tense is sometimet 
used for the imperfect ; as, "He enters the territory of the peaceable in- 
habitants ; he rights and conquers, takes an immense booty, which he 
divides among his soldiers, and returns home to enjoy an empty triumph." 

487. The imperfect tense expresses what took place in time 
past, however distant ; as, " John died." 

488. The perfect tense expresses what has taken place, and 
conveys an allusion to the present time; as, "I have finished 
my letter." 

489. When any particular period of past time is specified or alluded to, 
we use the imperfect tense; as, " John wrote yesterday ;" but when no 
particular past time is specified, we use the perfect tense ; as, " I have read 
Virgil many times." 

490. The perfect tense and the imperfect tense both denote a thing that 
is past ; but the former denotes it in such a manner that there is still actually 
remaining some part of the time to slide away, wherein we declare the. 
thing has been done ; whereas the imperfect denotes the thing or action 
past, in such a manner, that nothing remains of that time in which it was 
done. If we speak of the present century, we say, " Philosophers have 
made great discoveries in the present century ;" but if we speak of the last 
century, we say, " Philosophers made great discoveries in the last century." 
— "He has been much afflicted this year." " I have this week read the 
President's proclamation." " I have heard great news this morning." In 
these instances, He has been, I have read, and heard, denote things that 

XXX IX. What is the meaning of pre- What does the perfect tense express? 

sent? 173. Give an example. 488. 

What does the present tense express? " John wrote yesterday." What tense 

482. Give an example. 482. is the verb in here ? 489. 

" Seneca reasons well." What tense Why is this tense used ? 489. 
is employed here? Why? 483. " I have read Virgil many times." Why 

In the phrase, "When he arrives," is the perfect tense used here ? 489. 
future time is alluded to: why, then, is What do both the perfect and imper- 

the present employed ? 484; feet denote ? 490. 

Do we sav, " There is," or, " there was How does the former denote it ? 490. 
no God ?" Why ? 485. How does the latter? 490. 

What is the meaning of animated? 486. Do we say, "Philosophers made" or. 

Meaning of narrations ? 48(5. " have made, great discoveries in the pre. 

" He enters the territory," &c. Why is sent century ?" Why ? 4G0. 
the present tense used ? 486. Which tense do we use in speaking ol 

What is the meaning of imperfect! 181. the last century? 490. Give an exam« 

How came this term to be used, to de- pie. 490. 
note an action past and finished ?* " I have this week read the President's 

What does the imperfect tense express? proclamation." "I have heard great 

487. Give an example. 487. news this morning." Which are the 

Meaning of perfect ?f verbs used in these two sentences? 490. 

(1.) Lively. (2.) Descriptions, or telling what has beeu done. 

* See question to 182, t Finished, or complete. 



TENSES.— PARTICIPLES. 61 

are past; but they occurred in this year, in this week, and to-day; and 

scill there remains a part of this year, week, and day, whereof I speak. 

490 — 1. In general, the perfect tense may be used wherever the action 
is connected with the present time, by the actual existence, either of the 
author or of the work, though it may have been performed many centuries 
ago ; but if neither the author nor the work now remains, it cannot be used 
We may say, " Cicero has written orations ;" but we cannot say, " Cicero 
has written poems ;" because the orations are in being, but the poems are 
lost. Speaking of priests in general, we may say, " They have, in all ages, 
claimed great powers;" because the general order of the priesthood still 
exists : but if we speak of the Druids, as any particular order of priests, 
which does not now exist, we cannot use this tense. We cannot say, 
" The Druid priests have claimed great powers ;" but must say, " The Druid 
priests claimed great powers ;" because that order is now totally extinct. 

491. The pluperfect tense expresses what had taken place at 
some past time mentioned ; as, " I had finished my letter before 
my father returned." 

492. The first future tense expresses what will take place; 
as, " John will come." 

493. The second future expresses what will have taken 
place, at or before some future time mentioned ; as, " I shall 
have finished my business before the steam-boat starts." 

494. Tense is the distinction of time, and admits of six 
variations, namely — the present, the imperfect, the perfect, the 
pluperfect, and the first and second future tenses. 



XL. OF PARTICIPLES. 

495. In the phrase, "I found a man laboring in the field," the word 
laboring shows what the man was doing, and therefore resembles a verb. 
When I say, "The laboring man should not be wronged," laboring is 
joined to the noun man, to describe it, and therefore resembles an adjective. 

496. The word laboring, then, partakes of the nature of two different 
parrs of speech ; and since participle signifies partaking of, we will call 
Buch words as laboring, participles. 

What do they denote ? When did these Give an example. 492. Why called first 

things occur ? 490. future ?* 

To what may the perfect tense in gen- What does the second future express? 

eral he applied ? What exception is men- Give an example. 493. 
tioned ? 490—1. How many tenses are there in all, and 

Do we say, "Cicero wrote," or, " has what are they? 494. 
written^ orations ?" " Cicero wrote," or, In what mood is, " He runs ?" Why ? 

41 has written" poems ?" Why? 490—1. 452. "Does he run?" Why? 452. "I 

In speaking of priests, in general, why may run?" Why? 453. " Should 1 have 

do we say, "They have in all ages claim- studied?" Why"? 453. "If he accept?" 

«rd ereat powers?" 490— 1. Why? 456. "If he accepts?" Why? 

Can we say, "The Druid priests have 456. "To sing?" Why? 479. 
claimed great powers?" What should we In what tense is, " He sinirs 7 " Whv ? 

say? Why? 490—1. 482. "Did he sincr?" Why? 487. "He 

What is the meaning of pluperfect? has read?" 488. Why? "Had he writ 

18(3. ten?" 491. Why? ""Shall he go?" 492, 

What does the pluperfect tense ex- " I shall have gone ?" Why? 493. 
press? 49J. Give an example. 491. XL. What p-arts of speech does labot 

Meaning of future? 177. in^resemhle? Give an example. 495. 

What does the first future express? What is the meaning of participle 7496 

* See question to 191. 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

497. All participles are derived from verbs ; thus, from labor come? 
laboring ; from beat, beating ; rejoice, rejoicing, &e. : hence, 

49S. The participle is a word derived from a verb, and par- 
takes of the nature of a verb and adjective. 

499. When I say, " John is writing," the participle writing shows what 
John is now doing, but has not finished ; writing, then, may be called a 
present participle : hence, 

500. The present participle expresses what is now taking 
place, but not finished. 

501 — 1. This participle always ends in ing ; as sinning, fighting, weep- 
ing, loving, &e. There are many words with this termination, which are 
not participles ; as, morning, evening, which are nouns ; uninteresting, 
unsatisfying, which are adjectives. The fact that these cannot be formed 
from verbs will furnish you with a certain rule for distinguishing the par- 
ticiple from all other words of the same termination ; as, for instance, un- 
interesting, we know, is not a participle, because there is no such verb as 
uninterest, from which to form it. 

501. " The letter is written." Here the participle written shows that 
the act of writing is past and finished*; it may then be called a perfect par- 
ticiple : hence, 

502. The perfect participle expresses what is past and finished. 
502 — 1. This participle may always be distinguished by its making sense 

with having ; thus, having written, having sung, &,c. Here written and 
sung are perfect participles. • 

503. "John, having written his letter, sealed it." Here you doubtless 
perceive that the act of writing took place before that of sealing ; also, that 
the participle is composed of two words, having and written ; it may then 
be called a compound participle, and because it denotes also an action past 
and finished, it may very properly be called a compound perfect participle : 
hence, 

504. The compound perfect participle expresses what took 
place before somethincr else mentioned. 

504 — 1. This participle is formed by placing the present participle having 
before the perfect participle of any verb : as, having fought, having ciphered. 



XLI. FORMATION OF THE PASSIVE VERB. 

505. Struck is a perfect participle, from the verb strike, and this you 
know, because it makes sense joined with having ; as, having struck. 

From what are all participles derived ? Having written, having sung. Which 

497. Give an example. 497. • are the perfect participles here? 502. 

What is a participle ? 498. " John . having written his letter, seal- 
When I say, i% John is writing," what ed it." Which took place first, the vvri- 
does writing show ? 499. ting or sealing? 503. 

What, then, may it be called? 499. Of what is this participle composed? 

What, then, is a present participle ? 503. 

500. What, then, may it be called ? 508. 

What does this participle always end What does having written denote in 

in? 500 — 1. Give an example. 500—1. reference to time and action? 503. 

Are all words ending in ing partici- What may it thence be called ? 503. 
pies? Give an example of nouns of this What does a compound perfect parti- 
termination ? of adjectives? 500—). ciple express? 504. 

How, then, can the participle be How is this participle formed? 504. 

distinguished? Give an example. Give an example. 504. 

500 — 1. XLI. Striking, struck, having struck. 

"The letter is written." What does Here are three different participles : can 

the participle viritten show here? What, you tell which is the present? Why? 

then, may it be called? 501. 500. Perfect? Why? 502. Compound 

What is a perfect participle? 502. perfpct ? Whv ? 503. 

How may this participle always be What kind of a participle is struck? 

Known ? Give an example. 502 — 1 505. How do you know this ? 505- 



VERBS. 69 

506. Is, you doubtless recollect, is a variation of the verb to h*>. ; as, " I 
am, you are, he is:" now, by joining is with struck, we can form the pas- 
sive verb is struck; "John strikes Joseph," is active; but, "Joseph is 
struck by John," is passive. 

507. In these two examples, you perceive that the sense of each is the 
same : hence, by means of the passive verb, we are enabled to express, in a 
different form, the precise meaning of the active, which, you will oftentimes 
find, contributes not a little to the variety and harmony of the language. 

508. By examining the conjugation of the verb to be, you will discover 
that it has, in all, ten variations : viz. am, art, is, are, was, wast, were, been, 
be, and being. Every passive verb must be composed of one of these ten 
variations, and the perfect participle of any active transitive verb. Thus, 
taking was, and joining it with the perfect participle of the verb beat, namely, 
beaten, we form the passive verb was beaten, to which prefixing an object, 
or nominative case, we have the phrase, " William was beaten." 

509. It is a fact worthy to be remembered, that the passive verb always 
retains the same mood, tense, number, and person, that the verb to be has, 
before it is incorporated with the participle ; thus, " He has been," is the 
indicative perfect, third person singular ; then, " He has been rejected," is 
likewise the indicative perfect, third person singular, passive. It cannot, 
therefore, be difficult to tell the mood, tense, number, and person, of any 
passive verb, if you are familiar with the conjugation of the verb to be. 

From the foregoing particulars, we derive the following general rule : 

510. AIL passive verbs are formed by adding the perfect par- 
ticiple of any active-transitive verb to the neuter verb to be. 



XLII. OF THE AUXILIARY VERB. 

511. Auxiliary verbs are those by the help of which the 
principal verbs are conjugated. 

512. The auxiliary verbs are may, can, must, might, could, 
would, should, and shall. The following are sometimes aux- 
iliaries, and sometimes principal verbs : do, be, have, and will. 

513. When, in the formation of any tense, we use an auxiliary verb, that 
tense is called a compound one ; and the tense formed by the principal verb 
alone is called a simple tense. 



XLIII. SIGNS OF THE MOODS. 

514. The indicative mood may be known by the sense, or 
by its having no sign except in asking a question ; as, " Who 
comes here?" 



Of what verb is the verb is a varia- What fact is mentioned as worthy of 

Hon ? 506. notice ? 509. 

Will you form a passive verb with is What mood, tense, number, and per- 

and struck? 506. son, is, "He has been?" 509. Is, "He 

•• John strikes Joseph." How may the has been rejected ?" 509. 

sense of this sentence be expressed by What, will make the mood, tense, &a. 

passive verb? 506. of passive verbs familiar? 509. 

What advantage does the use of the Hovv are a11 passive verbs formed ? 510 

passive verb often afford us? 507. . XLII. What is the meaning of aux. 

To what does it contribute ? 507. ihary ? 19$. 

What are auxiliary verbs ? 511. 

How many variations has the verb to vVill you name them ? 512. 

be in all ? 508. What are they ? 508. Wnat verbs are used bottfas auxiliary 

What will always compose one part of and principal verbs? 512. 

a passive verb? 508. What the other XLIII. What is the sign of the indica. 

part? 508. tive mood ? 514. Give an example 514. 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

515. The potential mood has for its signs the auxiliaries 
may, can, must, might, could, would, and should; as, "I 
could love," &c. 

516. The subjunctive mood has usually for its signs the 
conjunctions if, though, unless, except, whether, and lest ; as, 
" Unless he repent," &c. 

517. The infinitive mood has usually for its sign the word 
to ; as 5 to sing, 

518. The imperative mood may be distinguished by its 
always being in the second person, and by its agreement with 
thou, or ye, or you, expressed or understood; as, "Depart 
thou," &a 



XLIV. SIGNS OF THE TENSES OF THE 
INDICATIVE. 

519. The present tense has for its sign the first form of the 
verb ; as, weep, remain, &c. ; excepting the occasional use of 
do ; as, " I do learn." 

520. The imperfect tense has no auxiliary for a sign, except 
did, which is sometimes used. If, however, the verb is not in 
the present tense, and has no auxiliary, it follows that it is in 
the imperfect ; as, " I fought." 

521. The perfect tense has for its sign the word have ; as, 
have loved. 

522. The pluperfect has for its sign had ; as, had loved. 

523. The first future has for its sign shall or will ; as, shall 
or will love. 

524. The second future has for its sign shall have or will 
have ; as, shall have loved, or will have loved. 

525. The mdicative mood has six tenses. 

526. The subjunctive mood has six tenses. 

527. The potential mood has four tenses. 

528. The infinitive mood has two tenses. 

529. The imperative mood has one tense. 

What is the sign of the potential mood? Sign of the perfect ? 521. Give an ez» 

515. Give an example. 515. ample. 521. 

What is the sign of the subjunctive Si £ n of the pluperfect ? 522. Give an 

jriood? 510. Give an example. 516. example. 522. 

What is the sign of the infinitive mood? ^ff,?^* 1 * fat0ret m GlVe an 

517 Give an example 517. "»££ *£ second future ? 524. Give 

What is the sign of the imperative ? an example. 524. 

518. Give an example. 518. How many tenses has the indicative 
XLTV. What is the sign of the pre- mood? 525. 

sent indicative ? 519. Give an example. How many the subjunctive ? 526- 

519. How many the potential ? 527. 
Sign of the imperfect? 520. Give an How many the infinitive? 528. 

•sample. 520. How many the imperative ? 539. 



VERBS 



71 



XLV. CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

530. When I ask you to raise your voice, in reading, you readily under- 
stand what I mean by voice ; but in grammar, its application is somewhat 
peculiar. Grammatically considered, it refers to the active and passive 
nature of verbs. 

531. The conjugation of a verb is the regular combination 
and arrangement of its several numbers, persons,- moods, and 
tenses. 

532. The conjugation of an active verb is styled the 
active voice, and that of a passive verb the passive voice, 

533. Verbs are called regular, when they form their im 
perfect tense of the indicative mood, and their perfect parti- 
ciple, by the addition of ed to the verb in the present tense, or 
d only when the verb ends in e ; as, 

Pres. Tense. Imp. Tense. Perf. Participle. 

I favour. I favoured. Favoured. 

I love. I loved. Loved. 

534. When a verb does not form its imperfect tense and 
verfect participle in this manner, it is called an irregular 
verb ; as, 

Pres. Tense. Imp. Tense. Perf. Participle. 
I am. I was. Been. 

535. The regular verb love, and the irregular verb to be, 
ire conjugated as follows . — 

CONJUGATION. 
TO LOVE and TO BE. 



active and passive voice contrasted 





INDICATIVE MOOD. 


* 






present tense. 






ACTIVE VOICE. 


PASSIVE VOICE. 




NEUTER. 


Singular. 


Singular. 




Singular. 


1 Pers. I love. 


1 Pers. I am loved. 


1 Pers. 


I am. 


2 Pers. You love. 


2 Pers. You are loved. 


2 Pers. 


You are. 


3 Pers. He loves 


3 Pers. He is loved. 


3 Pers. 


He is. 


Plural. 


Plural. 




Plural. 


1 Pers. We love. 


1 Pers. We are loved. 


1 Pers. 


We are. 


2 Pers. You love. 


2 Pers. You are loved. 


2 Pers. 


You are. 


3 Pers. They love. 


3 Pers. They are loved. 


3 Pers. 


They are. 



XLV. What does voice mean in gram- 
mar? 530. 

Meaning of conjugation? 217. 

What is the conjugation of an active 
verb styled ? 532. 

What the conjugation of a passive 
rerb ? 532 



When are verbs called regular? 533. 
Give an example. 533. 

Will you repeat after me the present 
'tense, and name the imperfect tense and 
perfect participle, of the verbs favour? 
love? 533. 

When is a verb called irregular? 534* 
Give an example 534. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Singular, 
I loved. 
You loved 
He loved. 

Plural. 
We loved. 
You loved. 
They loved. 

Singular, 
I have loved. 
You have loved. 
He has loved. 
Plural. 
We have loved. 
You have loved. 
They have loved. 

Singular. 
I had loved. 
You had loved. 
He had loved. 

Plural. 
We had loved. 
You had loved. 
They had loved. 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. 

1. I was loved. 

2. You were loved. 

3. He was loved. 

Plural. 

1. We were loved. 

2. You were loved. 

3. They were loved. 

PERFECT TENSB. 

Singular. 

1. I have been loved. 

2. You have been loved. 

3. He has been loved. 

Plural. 

1. We have been loved. 

2. You have been loved. 

3. They have been loved. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. 

1. I had been loved. 

2. You had been loved. 

3. Pie had been loved. 

Plural. 

1. We had been loved. 

2. You had been loved. 

3. They had been loved. 



FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular Singular. 

. I shall or will love. 1. I shall or will be 1 
. You shall or will loved 2 

Tf! 0Y \ 11 n 2 - Y< ? u sha11 or wil * be 

. We shall or will loved 3 

love - 3. He shall or will be 

loved. 
Plural. Plural 

. We shall or will 1. We shall or will be 1 

v love - L „ loved. 

. You shall or will 2. You shall or will be 2 
love. i oved 

They shall or will 3. They shall or will be 3 
love. j oved> 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 

t uu£ ular ,' , Singular. 

I shall have loved. 1. I shall have been 1 

You will have lov- loved. 2 

w« e f,-Ti u i j 2 ' Y( ? u wiU have be en 3! 
He will have loved. loved. 

3. He will have been 
_ loved. 

Plural. Plural 

We shall have lov- 1. We shall have been 1. 
■vr -ii •> loved. 2 

You will have lov- 2. You will have been 3* 
rp] ed ' . , t loved. 

They will have lov 3. They will have been 
ed * loved.- 



Singular* 

1. I was. 

2. You were. 

3. He was. 

Plural. 
J. We were. 

2. You were. 

3. They were. 

Singular. 

1. I have been. 

2. You have been. 

3. He has been. 

Plural. 

1. We have been. 

2. You have been. 

3. They have been. 

Singular. 

1. I had been. 

2. You had been. 

3. He had been. 

Plural. 

1. We had been. 

2. You had been. 

3. They had been. 

Singular. 
. I shall or will be. 
. You shall or will 
be. 
He shall or wiU 
be. 

Plural. 
We shall or wii! 

be. 
You shall or will 

be. 
They shall or wili 

be. 

Singular. 
I shall have been. 
You will have been. 
He will have been. 



Plural 
We shall have been. 
You will have been. 
They will have been, 



Will you conjugate love in the present 
tense, active voice, indicative mood? 
&». In the imperfect? perfect? plu- 



perfect? first future? second future? 
present passive? imperfect? perfect? 
pluperfect ? first future ? secoud future? 



TENSES 



73 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSEo 



Singular. 




Singular. 






Singular. 


1 1 may or can love. 


1. 


I may or can 


be lov- 


1. 


I may or can be. 


2 You may or can 




ed. 




2. 


You may or can 


love. 


2. 


You may or 


can be 




be. 


3 He may or can 




loved. 




3. 


He may or can 


love. 


3. 


He may or 
loved. 


can be 




be. 


Plural. 




Plural. 






Plural. 


1 We may or can 


1. 


We may or 


can be 


1. 


We may or can 


love. 




loved. 






be. 


ft Yoa may or can 


2. 


You may or 


can be 


2. 


You may or can 


love. 




loved. 






be. 


3 They may or can 


3. 


They may or can be 


3. 


They may or can 


love. 




loved. 






be. 




IMPERFECT TENSE. 






Singular. 




Singular. 






Singular. 


1. I might, could, would, 


1. 


I might, could, would, 


1. 


I might, could, would, 


or should love. 




or should be loved. 




or should be. 


2. You might, could, 


2. 


You might, 


could, 


2. 


You might, could, 


would, or should 




would, or 


should 




would, or should 


love. 




be loved. 






be. 


3. He might, could, 


3. 


He might, 


could, 


3. 


He might, could, 


would, or should 




would, or 


should 




would, or should 


love. 




be loved. 






be. 


Plural. 




Plural. 






Plural. 


1. We might, could, 


1. 


We might, 


could, 


1. 


We might, could, 


would, or should 




would, or 


should 




would, or should 


love. 




be loved. 






be. 


2. You might, could, 


2. 


You might, 


could, 


2. 


You might, could, 


would, or should 




would, or 


should 




would, or should 


love. 




be loved. 






be. 


3. They might, could, 


3. 


They might, 


could, 


3, 


They might, could, 


would, or should 




would, or 


should 




would, or should 


love. 




be loved. 






be. 






PERFECT TENSE. 






Singular. 




Singular. 






Singular. 


1. I may or can have 


1. 


I may or can have 


1. 


I may or can have 


loved. 




been loved 






been. 


2. You may or can have 


2. 


You may or can have 


2. 


You may or can have 


loved. 




been loved. 






been. 


3. He may or can have 
loved. 


3. 


He may or can have 


3. 


He may or can have 




been loved. 






been. 


Plural. 




Plural. 






Plural. 


1 We may or can have 


1 


We may or can have 


1. 


We may or can have 


loved. 




been loved. 






been. 


2. You may or can have 


2. 


You may or can have 


2 


You may or can have 


loved. 




been loved. 






been. 


5 They may or can 


3. 


They may 


or can 


3 


They may or can 


have loved. 




have been 


oved. 




have been. 



Will you conjugate the verb to be, or 
#m, in the present? the imperfect? per- 
fect? pluperfect? first future? second 
future? 

Will you name the first person singu- 
lar, of the present indicative, active and 
passive, of love, and the first person sin- 
gula*" of the verb to be? 




H 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Singular. 
\. I might, could, would, 

or should have lov- 
ed. 
2. You might, could, 

would, or should 

have loved. 
8. He might, could, 

would, or should 

have loved. 
Plural. 
1 We might, could, 

would, or should 

have loved. 
% You might, could, 

would, or should 

have loved. 
So They might, co^UL 

would, or should 

have loved. 



PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. 

1. I might, could, "would, 

or should have been 
loved. 

2. You might, could, 

would, or should 
have been loved. 

3. He might, could, 

would, or should 
have been loved. 
Plural. 

1. We might, could, 

would, or should 
have been loved. 

2. You might, could, 

would, or should 
have been loved. 

3. They might, could, 

would, or should 
have been loved. 



Singular. 

1. I might, could, would, 

or should have 
been. 

2. You might, could, 

would, or should 
have been, 

3. He might, could, 

would, or should 
have been. 
Plural. 

1. We might, coulcL 

would, or shouts 
have been. 

2. You might, could, 

would, or should 
have been. 

3. They might, could, 

would, or should 
have been. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Singular 
I /If. I love. 

2. If you love. 

3. If he loves. 

Plural 

1. If we love. 

2. If you love. 

3. If they love. 

Singular, 

1. If Hove. 

2. If you love. 

3. If he love. 

Plural. 
1. If we love. 
9> If you love. 
%* If they love. 



Singular. 

1. If I loved. 

2. If you loved. 

3. If he loved. 

Plural. 

1. If we loved. 

2. If you loved. 

3. If they loved. 



PRESENT TENSE. 

Common Form. 
Singular, 

1. If I am loved. 

2. If you are loved. 

3. If he is loved. 

Plural. 

1. If we are loved. 

2. If you are loved. 

3. If they are loved. 

Subjunctive Form, 

Singular. 

1. If I be loved. 

2. If you be loved. 

3. If he be loved. 

Plural. 

1. If we be loved. 

2. If you be loved. 

3. If they be loved. 

IMPERFECT TENSE, 

Common Form. 
Singular. 

1. If I was loved. 

2. If you were loved. 

3. If he was loved. 

Plural. 

1. If we were loved. 

2. If you were loved. 

3. If they were loved. 



Singula*- 

1. If I am. 

2. If you are. 

3. If he is. 

Plural. 

1. If we are. 

2. If you are. 

3. If they are. 

Singular* 

1. If I be. 

2. If you be. 

3. If he be. 

PluraL 

1. If we be. 

2. If you be. 

3. If they be. 



Singular. 

1. If I was. 

2. If you were. 

3. If he was. 

Plural. 

1. If we were. 

2. If you were. 

3. If they were. 



Will you conjugate love in like man- 
ner, through each person and voice of the 
pluperfect ? first and second futures ? pre- 
sent potential ? imperfect? perfect? plu- 
perfect? present subjunctive, common 
form ? subjunctive form ? imperfect, com- 
mon form? subjunctive form? perfect? 
pluperfect? first and second futures ? 



Will you conjugate love in the presen? 
indicative active? imperfect ? perfect i 
pluperfect? first and second futures? 
present passive? imperfect? perfect? 
pluperfect? first and second futures? 
present indicative of to be? imperfect? 
perfect? pluperfect? first and secoud 
futures ? 



TENSES. 



75 



Singulan 

1. If I loved. 

2. If you loved. 

3. If he loved. 

Plural 

1. If we loved. 

2. If you loved. 

3. If they loved. 



Subjunctive Form. 

Singular. 

1. If I were loved. 

2. If you were loved. 

3. If he were loved. 

Plural. 

1. If we were loved. 

2. If you were loved. 

3. If they were loved. 



Singular. 

1. If I were. 

2. If you were. 

3. If he were. 

Plural. 

1. If we were. 

2. If you were. 

3. If they were. 



The remaining tenses are all of the Common Form. 



Singular. 

1. If I have loved. 

2. If you have loved. 

3. If he has loved. 

Plural. 

1. If we have loved. 

2. If you have loved. 

3. If they have loved. 



Singular. 

1. If I had loved. 

2. If you had loved. 

3. If he had loved. 

Plural. 
It If we had loved. 

2. If you had loved. 

3. If they had loved. 



PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. 

1. If I have been loved. 

2. If you have been lov- 

ed. 

3. If he has been loved. 

Plural. 

1. If we have been lov- 

ed. 

2. If you have been lov- 

ed. 

3. If they have been lov- 

ed. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. 

1. If I had been loved. 

2. If you had been loved. 

3. If he had been loved. 

Plural. 

1. If we had been loved. 

2. If you had been lov- 

ed. 

3. If they had been loved. 



Singular. 

1. If I have been. 

2. If you have been. 

3. If he has been. 

Plural. 

1. If we have been. 

2. If you have been. 

3. If they have been. 



FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Singular. 

1. If I shall or will 1. If I shall or will be i. 

love. loved. 

2. If you shall or will 2. If you shall or will be 2. 

love. loved. 

3. If he shall or will 3. If he shall or will be 3. 

love. loved. 



Singular. 
If I had been. 
If you had been. 
If he had been. 

Plural. 
If we had been. 
If you had been. 
If they had been. 



Singular. 
If I shall or will 

be. 
If you shall or will 

be. 
If he shall or will 

be. 



Will you conjugate love through each 
person of the present indicative active? 
passive? the neuter verb to be? also in 
the imperfect ? perfect ? pluperfect ? first 
and second futures? present potential ? 
imperfect? perfect? pluperfect? present 
subjunctive, in both forms? perfect? 
pluperfect? first and second futures ? 

What is the present infinitive active of 
love ? present passive? present of to be? 
perfect active of love? perfect passive? 
perfect of to be? present participle active 
of love? present passive? present of to 
be? perfect of love ? perfect of to be? 
compound perfect of love, in the active? 
in the passive of to be? 

In what voice and mood is, " I love ?" 
M They love ?" " They are loved ?" " Are 
they lovpd ?" " I do love ?" What is the 
force of do? In what voice and mood is, 
% The man loved?" " He has loved?" 



loved ?" " Has he been 
had loved ?" " She had 
"We 
been 
1 be 
'She 



" He has been 
loved?" "She 

been loved?" "We shall love?" 
shall be loved?" "Shall I have, 
loved ?" " May I love ?" " May 
loved?" "She may have loved?" 
may have been loved ?" " If I love ?" 
" If he be loved ?" " If he is loved ?'' " II 
I love ?" " If I were loved ?" " If I was 
loved?" 

In what tense is, " They love ?" " Ys 
are loved ?" " She did love ?" " We were 
loved?" "They shall love?" "They 
shall be loved ?" " I may be loved ?" 
" If she has been loved ?" 

In what number and person is, " \ 
love?" "We love?" "He does love?" 
" The man did love ?" " The men were 
loved?" "If he love?" "If I was?" 
" If I were ?" " If ye have been ?" " If 
ye have loved?" " You may be loved?" 



76 

Plural. 

1. If we shall or 

love. 

2. If you shall or 

love. 

3. If they shall or 

love. 



Singular. 

1. If I shall have 

ed. 

2. If you shall have 

ed 
$. If Le shall have 
ed. 

Plural. 

1. If we shall have 

ed. 

2. If you shall have 

ed. 

3. If they shall have 

ed. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Plural. Plural. 

will 1. If we shall or will be 1. If we shall or will 

loved. be. 

will 2. If you shall or will be 2. If you shall or will 

loved. be. 

will 3. If they shall or will 3. If they shall or will 

be loved. be. 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Singular. 

lov- 1. If I shall have been 1. If I shall have been. 

loved. 2. If you shall have 
lov- 2. If you shall have been been. 

loved. 3. If he shall have 
lov- 3. If he shall have been been. 

loved. 

Plural. Plural. 

lov- 1. If we shall have been 1. If we shall have 

loved. been, 

lov- 2. If you shall have been 2. If you shall have 

loved. been, 

lov- 3. If they shall have 3. If they shall have 

been loved. been. 



Singular. 
2. Love you, or do you 
love. 

Plural, 
2. Love you, or do you 
love. 



Pres. To love. 
Per/. To have loved. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Si?igular. 

2. Be you loved, or do 

you be loved. 

Plural. 

2. Be you loved, or do 

you be loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD, 

Pres. To be loved. 
Perf. To have been lov- 
ed. 



Singular. 
2. Be you, or do 
be. 

Plural. 
2. Be you, or do 
be. 



you 



you 



Pres. To be. 

Perf. To have been. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Loving. Pres. Being loved. 

Perf. Loved. Perf. Loved. 

Compound Perf. Hav- Compound Perf. Hav- 
ing loved. ing been loved. 
536. For the benefit of those who wish to retain the pronoun thou, in the 
conjugation of verbs, the following synopsis is given. The pupil can take 
it separately, or be taught it in connection with the other persons of the 
verb, by substituting thou for you, in the foregoing conjugation. 



Pres. Being. 
Perf Been. 
Compound Perf. Hav- 
ing been. 



Is love, as, " They love," a regular or 
irregular verb? why? 533. active or pas- 
sive"? 439. What mood is it in ? why ? 
452. tense ? why ? 482. number ? person ? 
What does love agree with? Rule VII. 

Is are, as, " They are," a regular or 
irregular verb? why? 534. passive or 
neuter ? why ? 450. What mood is it in ? 
why? 452. tense? why? 482. number? 
person ? Rule for its agreement ? VII. 

What is the present imperative of love? 
present infinitive ? 

What mood and tense is, " Love you ?" 
is, " To have been loved ?" 

Will you conjugate learn in the pre- 
sent indicative active? passive? perfect 
fective? perfect passive? present poten- 
tial active? passive? imperfect active? 



passive ? imperative present active ? pas. 
sive ? perfect infinitive active ? passive ? 
present subjunctive active in both forms? 
passive ? perfect infinitive? future ac- 
tive passive ? 

What kind of verb (that is, regular o? 
irregular,) what voice, mood, tense, num- 
ber, and person is, " I sing ?" " We are 
formed?" "He is?" "You are deter 
mined ?" " It rains ?" " It has happen- 
ed ?" " The man was respected ?" " The 
boys did study ?" " If he improve ?" " Un- 
less he repent?" "Although she be dis- 
appointed?" " He may depart ?" "De- 
part now?" "To love?" "To sing?** 
" To be sung ?" " To rejoice ?" M To have 
wept ?" " To have been seen V " To have 
been found ?" 



Pres. Thou lovest. 

Imp. Thou lovedst. 

Perf. Thou hast loved. 

Plup. Thou hadst lov- 
ed. 

* Fut. Thou shalt or 
wilt love. 

£ Fk£. Thou wilt have 
loved. 



TENSES. 
Synopsis with Thou. 

INDICATIVE MOOD, 

Thou art loved. 
Thou wast loved. 
Thou hast been loved. 
Thou hadst been loved. 



77 



Thou shalt or wilt be 

loved. 
Thou wilt have been 

loved. 



537 
7 fres. Thou 

canst love. 
Imp. Thou mightst, 

couldst, wouldst, or 

shouldst love. 
Perf. Thou mayst or 

canst have loved. 
Plup. Thou mightst, 

couldst, wouldst, or 

shouldst have loved. 



POTENTIAL MOOD, 
mayst or Thou mayst or canst be 



loved. 
Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst, or shouldst 

be loved. 
Thou mayst or canst 

have been loved. 
Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst, or shouldst 

have been loved. 



Thou art. 
Thou wast. 
Thou hast been. 
Thou hadst been. 

Thou shalt: or wilt be. 

Thou wilt have been. 



Thou mayst or canst 

be. 
Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst, or shouldst 

be. 
Thou mayst or canst 

have been. 
Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst, or shouldst 

have been. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 


538. 


Common Form. 




Pres. If thou lovest. 


If thou art loved. 


If thou art. 


Imp. If thou lovedst. 


If thou wast loved. 


If thou wast. 


539. 


Subjunctive Form* 




Pres. If thou love. 


It thou De loved. 


H thou be. 


Imp. If thou loved. 


If thou wert loved. 


If thou wert. 


540. 


Common Form. 




Perf. If thou hast loved- 


If thou hast been loved. 


If thou hast been. 


Plup. If thou hadst lov- 


If thou hadst been lov- 
ed. 
If thou shalt or wilt be 


If thou hadst been. 


ed. 
I Fut. If tnou shalt or 


If thou shalt or wih 


wilt love. 


loved. 


be. 


2 Fut. If thou shalt have 


If thou shalt have been 


If thou shalt have been. 


loved. 


loved. 
Interrogative Form. 




541. INDICATIVE PRESENT. 


Singular. 


Singular. 


Singular. 


1. Do I love? 


1. Am I loved? 


1. Am I? 


2. Do you love ? 


2. Are you loved ? 


2. Are you ? 


3. Does he love ? 


3. Is he loved ? 


3. Is he ? 


Plural. 


Plural. 


Plural. 


1. Do we love ? 


1. Are we loved ? 


i. Are we ? 


2. Do you love ? 


2. Are you loved ? 


1. Are you ? 


3. Do they love ? 


3. Are they loved ? 


3. Are they ? 


542. You will find, on examination of the foregoing conjugation, that tha 


tenses of the subjunctive are in every respect similar to the corresponding ones 


of the indicative, except 


the following, namely, the present and imperfect 



Will you give the synopsis of love join- 
ed with thou through the indicative ac- 
tive ? passive ? Neuter verb to be ? 

Will you name the synopsis of learn in 
v.he first person in the active voice, 
through each mood and tense? Will you 
repeat the two tenses of the infinitive 
and the three participles ? Synopsis of 



honor in like manner through the pas- 
sive? also the synopsis of the verb to be? 
Give the synopsis of desire in the active, 
like love ; in the passive ; verb to be; first 
person plural active ; passive ; to be; third 
person active; passive; to be. 

What mood does the subjunctiv*, *o» 
senible in its tenses ? 542. 



7* 



78 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



of the verb to be ; the present and imperfect of the passive ; the present and 
the second future active. The last, however, corresponds in termination, 
but not in formation. Among the exceptions should be reckoned the use of 
the conjunction if. There are instances, however, of the subjunctive form, 
when no conjunction is expressed, but in all such cases it is plainly under- 
stood , as, " Were I to go, he would not follow ;" " Mad he known me, 
he would have treated me differently ;" that is, " If I were to go," and, *' If 
he had known." Examples of this description are conjugated as follows ; 

SUBJUNCTIVE FORM. 

543. IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Were I. 1. Were we. 

2. Were you. 2. Were you. 

3. Were he. 3. Were they. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Had I loved. 1. Had we loved. 

2. Had you loved. 2. Had you loved. 

3. Had he loved. 3. Had they loved. 

544. The second person singular of all verbs* formerly (1.) ended in st , 
as, " Thou hast," " Thou wast," &c. This form is still retained by that 
respectable class of persons denominated (2.) Friends, and in the Sacred (3.) 
Scriptures. (3.) 

545. Eth, for the termination of the third person singular, obtained (4.) 
very generally till within a recent (5.) period, especially on grave (6.) and 
didactic (7. subjects ; as, " He that hath ears to hear, let him hear ;" " Sim- 
ple multiplication teacheth to repeat," &c. But the custom of the present 
ilay is decidedly (8.) against this form of expression. 

546. The Scriptures abound (9.) with instances of the use of the pro* 
noun ye for you ; as, M Ye are the salt of the earth ;" but it is scarcely to 
be met with in any standard works of modern date. 

547. The following conjugation accords with the ancient usage of the verb, 

INDICATIVE PRESENT. 



Singular. 


Singular 


Singular. 


1. I love. 


1. I am loved. 


1. I am. 


2. Thou lovest. 


2. Thou art loved. 


2. Thou art. 


3. He loveth or loves. 


3. He is loved. 


3. He is. 



What exceptions? 542. 

How does the second future differ ? 542. 

Will you explain the difference ? 542. 

What is the sign of the subjunctive 
mood? 510. Is it always expressed? 542. 
Give an example. 542. Will you supply 
the conjunction ? 

Will you conjugate the verb to be in 
the subjunctive mood, imperfect tense, 
without its usual sign? In like manner 
conjugate love in the pluperfect. 

Will you conjugate love in the present 
active, interrogative form? passive? 
neuter verb to be ? 

In what voice, mood, tense, number 
and person is, " Do I study?" " Did she 
study ?" " Were they dismissed?" " Are 
we ?" 

In what did the second person singular 
of all verbs formerly end? 544. Give an 
example. 544. 

Meaning of formerly ? 544. 



By whom is this termination still re- 
tained? 544. In what writings? 544. 

Meaning of Sacred Scriptures? 544. 

What form of the third person singu- 
lar obtained till recently ? 545. Give an 
example. 545. 

Meaning of obtained? 545. Of recent? 
545. 

On what subjects was the termination 
eth used in writing? 545. 

Meaning of grave? of didactic? 545. 

In what writings do we find ye used 
for you ? 546. 

Is it common in modern works? 546. 

Will you conjugate love in the present- 
active, according to the ancient usage ? 
547. passive ? neuter verb to be? 

In what number and person is, " He 
hath ?" " He hates ?" " Thou lovest r" 
"Thou hast?" "He learneth?" "Ye 
learn?" " He rejoiceth ?" "Thou art. re- 
joiced ?" " Thou art ?" " He weepeth ? n 



* ..cepting art. 

(1.) Smr.e time ago. (2.) Called. (3.) The Bible. (4.) Prevailed. 

(7.) Abounding in precepts or instructive. (8 J Positively. 



(5.) Late. (6.) Serioui, 
(9.) Have many. 



I 



VERBS. 79 



Plural Plural. Plural. 

1. We love. 1. We are loved. 1. We are. 

2. Ye or you love. 2. Ye or you are loved. 2. Ye or you are. 

3. They love. 3. They are loved. 3. They are. 

548. §Cr For a further illustration of these obsolete conjugations, the 
learner is referred to those treatises on grammar in our schools, which pro- 
fess to furnish him with a sure and infallible guide to the true and propel 
use of the English language. 

RUL2 VI. 

The nominative case governs the verb in number md 

person, 

RULS VII. 
A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and 

person. 

KULE VIII. 
Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
" William was admired for his prudence" 

549. William is a proper noun, of the third person, singular 
number, masculine gender, and in the nominative case to was ad- 
mired, agreeably to Rule VI. 

Was admired is a regular passive verb, from the verb to admire 
— " Pres. admire; Imp. admired ; Perf. part, admired. 1. I was ad- 
mired ; 2. You were admired ; 3. He or William was admired" — 
made in the indicative mood, imperfect tense, third person, sin- 
gular number, and agrees with William, according to Rule VII. 

For is a preposition. 

His is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular num- 
ber, masculine gender, and agrees with William, according to 
Rule V. — " Nom. he; Poss. his" — made in the possessive case, 
and governed by prudence, by Rule 1. 

Prudence is a common noun, of the third person, singular num- 
ber, neuter gender, objective case, and governed by for, by Rule X- 

EXERCISES IN PARSING CONTINUED. 

"John was applauded for his elo- "The girl was ridiculed by her 
quence." companions." 

"The king was crowned at West- "Susan was respected for her virtu- 
minster Abbey.' 1 ous conduct." 

"Thomas has been esteemed" "James will be rewarded by hli 

* The business will be regulated." instructer." 

"Addition teache*t./ M "He that hath was admired 1 549. for? 549. his? M9. 

ears?" 'He **iat sinneth?" "Thou prudence? 549. 

lovedst ?" Thou mightst, couldst, What is a passive verb? 444. How 

wouldsr jt shouldst have lamented ?" formed? 5J0. Why is admired regula* ? 

What is the rule for the agreement of 533. 

the verb? rule for the nominative ? rule Why is for a preposition? 246. Why 

by which verbs govern the objective case? is his a pronoun ? 

" William was admired for his pru- Will vou now parse the remaining ex 

Jence." Will you parse William? 549. ercises? 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. 

•* We may be esteemed." " Justice may have been stayed." 

11 He might have been promoted." " The task must be performed." 
* William would have been de- " We should not (1.) be easily (1.) 
throned." disheartened in a good cause." 

" If he be learned" 

550. If is a copulative conjunction. 

Be learned is a regular passive verb, from the verb to learn 
•— " Pres. learn; Imper. learned; Perf. part, learned. 1. If I be 
learned ; 2. If you be learned ; 3. If he be learned" — made in the 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD, SUBJUNCTIVE FORM, PRESENT TENSE, THIRD PER* 

Son, singular number, Lnd agrees with he % according to Rule VII. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

r * If John be rewarded." " Although you will be disappoint- 

K If I am noticed." ed." 

" Unless he be punished.* " If the man had been elected." 

" Although they are respected." " Except he repent." 

"Columbus discovered America." "Susan assisted the little girl." 

•* America was discovered by Co- " The little girl was assisted by 

lumbus." Susan." 

u John wounded his brother." " Pain follows pleasure." 

"John's brother was wounded by "Pleasure is followed by pain." 

him." 

2. 

" An obedient son is deservedly re- " Unless great labor had been be, 

spected by his friends." stowed on William, he would 

" An idle boy will be punish- have disappointed the expecta- 

ed." tions of his parents." 

"Without knowledge, a man is "He will not (1.) mind without 

commonly (1.) despised." corporal punishment." 

3. 

"The boy who visited me in Sep- "They that seek knowledge will 

tember, died in the city of Bos- find it." 

ton." " That lion which was exhibited 

u The man whom I found perished in this town has been killed by 

in a storm of snow." his keeper." 

4. 
•' I found (2.) John and William (3.) " I have assisted him and his sistef 
in the garden with their father in many difficulties, to no (4^ 

and mother. (3.) purpose." 



XLVI. OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

551. Irregular verbs are those which do not form their irru 
perfect tense and perfect participle by adding f o the present 
tense ed, or d only when the verb ends in e : as, 

" If he be learned." Will you parse if? Why in the subjunctive form .< 463. 
550. be learned? 550 Why in the sub- Will you parse the remaining exeici&ea 
junctive mood? 456. in these lessons? 

(1.) Adverb. (2.) Irregular verb 3.) For William and mot her apply Rule XI «4 ) Adjec^vft, 



IRREGULAR VERBS 



81 



Pres. tense.. 

Go, 
Begin, 



Imperf. tense. 

Went, 
Began, 



Per/. Participle, 

Gone, 
Begun. 



LIST OF mHEGULAR VERBS. 

Those marked r admit likewise a regular form. - 



J*-*""* ■nt. 


Imperfect, 


Perf. or Pass. Part. 


Present. 


Imperfect 


Perf. or Pass, P<sr& 


ADue, 


abode, 


abode. 


Hang, 


hung, r. 


hung. r. 


Am, 


was, 


been. 


Hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


Arise, 


arose. 


arisen. 


Hew, 


hewed, 


hewn. r. 


A wake, 


awoke, r. 


awaked. 


Hide, 


hid, 


hidden, hid. 


Bear, to bring 
forth, 


Share, 


born. 


Hit, 
Hold, 


hit, 
held, 


hit. 
held. 


Bear, to carry, 


3 bore, 


borne. 


Huit, 


hurt. 


hurt 


Beat, 


beat, 


beaten, beat. 


Keep, 


kept, 


kept 


Beirin, 


began, 


begun. 


Knit, 


knit, r. 


knit. r. 


Bend, 


bent, 
bereft, r. 


bent 


Know, 


knew, 


known. 


Bereave, 


bereft, r. 


Lade, 


laded, 


laden. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


Bid, 


bid, bade, 


bidden, bid. 


Lead, 


led, 


led. 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


Leave, 


left, 


left 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten, bit 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Let, 


let, 


let 


Bio»r, 


blew, 


blown. 


Lie, to he doum 


, Ja y» 


lain. 


Break, 


broke, 


broken. 


Load, 


loaded, 


laden, r. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


Bring, 
Build, 


brought, 


brought. 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


built, 


built. " 


Meet 


met, 


met 


Burst, 


burst, 


burst. 


Mow, 


mowed. 


mown. r. 


Buv, 


bought, 


b ught 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Cast, 


cast 


cast. 


Put, 


put, 


put. 


Catch, 


caught, r. 


caught, r. 


Read, 


read, 


read. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chidden, chid. 


Rend, 


rent, 


rent. 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 


Rid, 


rid, 


rid. 


Cleave, to stick 
or adhere, 


[ regular. 




Ride, 
Ring, 


rode, 
rung, rang 


rode, ridden. » 
rung. 


Cleave, to split. 


clove or cleft 


cleft, cloven. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


Cling, 


clun?, 


clung. 


Rive, 


rived, 


riven. 


Clothe, 


cl .thed, 


clad. r. 


Run, 


ran, 


run. 


Come, 


came, 


come. 


Saw, 


saw, 


sawn. r. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Say, 


said, 


said 


Crow, 


crew, r. 


crowed. 


See. 
Sepk, 


saw, 


seen. 


Creep, 


crept, 


cept 


sought, 


sought 
sold. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Sell, 


6old, 


Dare, to venture 


, durst, 


dared. 


Send, 


sent, 


sent 


Dare, to chal- 


5 dealt, r. 




Set, 


set, 


set 


lenge, 




Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


Deal, 


dealt, r. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


shaped, cltaf cm. 


n»g, 


dug, r. 


dug. r. ) 


41 have, 


shaved, 


shaven, r. 


Do, 


did, 


d me. , 


jhear, 


sheared, 


6horn. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawn. ' 
driven. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


Drive, 


drove, 


ohine, 


shone, r. 


shone, r. 


Drink, 


drank, 


drunk. 


Show, 


showed, 


shown. 


Dwell, 


dwelt, 


dwelt, r 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 


Eat, 
Fall, 
Feed, 


eat or ate 


eaten. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


fell, 


fallen. 


Shrink, 


shrunk, 


thrunk. 


fed, 


fed. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


Shut, 


chat, 


6hut. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


Sing, 


sung, sang. 


sung. 


Find, 


found, 


found. 


Sink, 


sunk, sank 


sunk. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


Sit. 


sat 


sat. 


Fling, 


flung, 


flung. 


Slav, 


slew, 


slain. 


Fly, 


flew, 


flown. 


Sleep, 


elepi, 


slept 


Torget, 


forgot, 


ftrgotten, forgot 


Slide, 


slid, 


sliddea. 


Forsake, 


forsook 


forsaken. 


Siins. 


slung, 


slung, 
clunk. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


Get, 


got, 


got, * 


Slit, 


elk, r. 


«li% or slittes. 


Gild, 


gjlt, r. 


gilt r. 


Smite, 


6mote, 


cmitten. 


Giid, 


girt, r. 


girt r. 


Sow, 


60wed« 


sown. r. 


Give, 


gave, 


given. 


Speak, 


spoke, 


spoken. 


Go, 


went, 


gone. 


Speed, 


sped, 


eped. 


Grave, 


graved, 


graven, r. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent 


Grind, 


ground. 


ground. 


Spill, 


spili, r. 


spil'. r. 


Grow, 
Haws, 


EST 1 


grown. 

had. 


Spin, 
Spit, 


spun, 
epit, spat, 


6pun. 

spit, spitten. { 



XLVI. When is a verb called irregu- 
lar? 551. 

Will you name the present and imper- 
fect tenses, also the perfect participle of 
go ? begin ? am ? arise ? awake ? bear ? 



(to carry.) bid? bite? break? choose* 
do? drink? eat? forget? have? known? 
lie? (to lie down.) mow? rise? se£t 
throw ? weave ? write ? 



* Gotten is nearly obsolete. Its compound forgotten, ij st.ll in good use, 

\ hidden is nearly obsolete. .Srijtm is uciriy cbtohsts. 



F 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Present. 


Imperfect, 


Split, 


split, 


Spread, 


spread, 


Spring, 


sprung, sprang, 


Stand, 


stood, 


Seal, 


stole, 


Stick, 


stuck, 


Sting, 
Stink, 


stung, 


slunk, 


Stride, 


strode, or strid. 


Strike, 


struck, 


String, 


strung, 


Strive, 


strove, 


Strowor6trew, 


l strowed, or 
i strewed, 


Swear, 


swore, 


Rwea^ 


swet, r. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


|}wim, 

Waving, 


swum, swam, 


swung, 



Perf. or Pass. Part. 


Present. 


Imperfect. 


split, r. 


Take, 
Teach, 


took, 


spread. 


taught, 


sprung. 


Tear, 


tore, 


sood. 


Tell, 


told, 


6to!en. 


Think, 


thought, 


s'uck. 


Thrive, 


throve, r. 


stung, 
stunk. 


Throw, 


threw, 


Thrust, 


tkrust, 


stridden. 


Tread, 


trod, 


struck or stricken. 


Wax, 


waxed, 


strung. 


Wear, 


wore, 


striven. 


Weaver 


wove, 


S strown, strowed, 


Weep, 


wept, 


i strewed, 
sworn. 


Win, 


won, 


Wind, 


wound, 


swet. r. 
swollen./. 


Work 


wrought, 


swum. 


Wring, 


wrung, 


swung, 


Write, 


wrote, 



Perf. or Pass, fast 

taken. 

taught. 

torn. 

told. 

thought. 

thriven. 

thrown. 

thrust. 

trodden. 

waxen, r. 

worn. 

wovea. 

wept. 

Won. 
. wound. 
3 wrought of 
\ worked. 

wrung. 

written. 

553. We say, " I have seen," "I had seen," and " I am seen," using 
She participle seen instead of the verb saw : hence, 

Note VI. We should use participles, only, after have, and 
had, and the verb to be. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
"John has ivritten his copy" 

554. Has written is an irregular active-transitive verb, 
from the verb to write — " Pres. write; Imperf. wrote; Perf. part. 
written. 1. I have written; 2. You have written; 3. He or John 
has written" — found in the indicative mood, perfect tense, 
third person, singular number, and agrees with John, by 
Rule VII. 

John, copy, and his, are parsed as before. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 



1. 



Job has struck John." 

John has been struck by Job." 

The men caught the thief in the 

tavern." 
The thief was caught by the men 

in the tavern." 
A wise son will mane a glad 

father." 



"The act was done by William." 
"James found his little brother in 

the boat." 
M The instructer makes good pens." 
"The farmer ploughs the ground 

in spring." 
" I may spend my time in the 

country." 



Will you correct, in accordance with 
Note VI., the following examples from 
the list above ? 

"John has wrote." 

" He done it well." 

44 The sun has rose." 

44 The sun risen yesterday in a cloud.** 

44 1 see him yesterday." 

*' He has did his task." 

44 The birds have flew away." 

44 The birds flown or flew." 

* The post is drove into the ground." 

44 He began or begun to write." 

44 The task is began." 

*' 1 had went with him." 

44 My brother has not spoke." 

44 The cloth is wove." 

** The boys run swiftly." 

•* The thief has stole my watch." 



41 His copy was wrote well." 

" He was smote on his cheek." 

44 John was awoke by the noise.** 

44 My father has came." 

44 He come yesterday." 

44 Mary has chose the better part.** 

44 He drunk to excess." 

44 The book was gave to me." 

44 His friends have forsook him." 

44 He was not forsook by his child 

ren." 
44 The laborer worked for me forty 

days." 

44 He was took and bound." 

44 John has written his copy." Will 

you parse has written ? 

Why is has written an irregular verbl 

551. Why active 1 439. Why transitive! 

44a 






EXERCISES. 
2. 



82 



* John is at home." 
44 Rums rode into the country." 
44 The sun will shine." 
44 The thief was confined in jail." 
Hi The horse ran with great vio- 
lence." 



44 He abode in peace." 

44 They would be cruel." 

44 We may have been negligent." 

44 The boys should have been studi 

ous." 
44 William was in town." 



* 4 If he will assist me, I shall be 
much (1.) obliged to him." 

** If he be virtuous, then he will be 
happy." 

44 If he is happy, then I am con- 
tented." 

•*Had he mentioned that circum- 
stance, I should have avoided 
my present calamities." 

•* Although he acknowledged his 



faults, still he would not recom- 

pense me." 
44 1 will write him, lest he neglect 

my business." 
"Should I be disappointed, I shall 

despair." 
44 Unless he repent, he will not be 

pardoned." 
44 Were I* in your place, I would 

relieve him." 



44 Thou hast benefited me." 
44 Ye make no pretensions." 
44 This doctrine hath no follow- 
ers." 
If thou love me." 
44 If thou art more comfortable, I 
heartily rejoice." 



44 Dost thou hear me ?" 

44 Hath he many advisers ?" 

44 Ye do always err." 

44 Thou shalt surely die." 

44 If thou hadst obeyed me, thou 

wouldst not have been disap.. 

pointed." 



44 If Thomas, who is at school, re- 
turn in season, I will visit you." 

"The boys whom I admonished 
have reformed." 

44 The man whose life was in dan- 
ger returned in safety." 

"The task which the instructer 



imposed was performed with 
reluctance." 

"The measure which he adopts 
will succeed." 

" I have known a little child that 
exhibited the prudence of ma- 
ture years." 



XLVII. GOVERNMENT OF THE INFINITIVE. 

555. When I say, " John begins to read," to read is a verb in the infini 
tive mood ; and it follows, as you perceive, the verb begins : hence we say 
that it is governed by begins. 

"He is beginning to read." Here, the infinitive follows the participle 
beginning ; it is, therefore, governed by heginning. 

44 He is eager to learn." Here, the infinitive follows the adjective eager; 
we therefore say that it is governed by eager. 

44 He has an opportunity to learn." Here, the infinitive, to learn is 
governed by the noun opportunity, because it follows the noun. 

In like manner the infinitive may be governed by pronouns; as, 44 There 
is a fine opportunity for him to learn :" hence, 



XLVTr " John begins to mad." In 
what mood is to read ? 555. Why ? 479. 
By what is it governed ? 555. Why ? 555. 

*• He is beginning to read." What go- 
verns to read in this case ? 555. 

" He is easier to learn." What governs 
to learn in this case ? 555. Why ? 555. 



41 He has an opportunity to learn ?" 
What part of speech governs to learn in 
this example ? 555. Why ? 555. 

"opportunity for him to learn." 

What does the infinitive here fol- 
low? By what, then, is it governed 1 
555. 



J Adverb. 



* See 543. 



M ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

HXJLB XII. 

The infinitive mood may be governed by verbs, particu 
pies, adjectives, nouns, and pronouns. 
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
" James begins to learn" 
556. To learn is a regular transitive verb — u Pres. learn; 
Imjierf. learned; Perf. part, learned" — made in the infinitive 
mood, present tense, and governed by begins, agreeably to 
Rule XII. 
James and begins, are parsed as before. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

" George desires to learn." "A knowledge of the rules of 

" He is eager to learn." grammar teaches us to write 

" He has a desire to study." correctly." 

" It seems to please John." " He should seek to obtain know- 

" William has come to see us." ledge." 

"They are determined to ex- "We may be taught to write, read, 

eel." and spell." 

Omission of to, the usual Sign of the Infinitive. 

•* John saw the man strike (1.) the " I heard the clock strike." 

boy." " The tutor bade him do it." 

"The instructer made him sub- " The soldiers dare not rebel." 

mil." " My uncle let the boys play in the 

" They need not proceed in such garden." 

haste." " See (2.) the blind beggar dance." 

Note VII. The infinitive mood is sometimes governed by 
conjunctions or adverbs ; as, " The summit of a mountain so 
high as to be invisible." 

EXAMPLES. 
41 They are about (3.) to depart." " He desired no more (4.) than (5.) 

** He is wise enough (3.) to study." to know his duty." 



XLVIII. 

557. We have before seen, that participles partake of the nature of two 
parts of speech, namely, verbs and adjectives. One point of resemblance 
which participles have to adjectives, is in referring to some noun in the sen- 
tence in which they are used ; as, " The sun is setting :" here . the partici- 
ple setting is said to refer to the noun sun : hence, 

What, then, may be regarded as a rule " They are about to depart." By what 

for the government of the infinitive? XII. is the infinitive here governed ? What is 

44 John begins to learn." Will you the note for this ? VII. 
parse to learn? James 1 begins? 556. XLVIII. What is a participle? 498. 
Is to ever omitted ? 480. "The sun is setting." What is set- 
Will you now parse the exercises in ting? 557. To what, then, does setting 
the lessons which follow ? refer ? 557. Rule ? XIII. 

What is the infinitive mood used for? Will you now parse setting in 

179. full? 

r ; ■* 

(1.) Strike is governed by Rule XII. 

(2.) See is in the imperative, agreeing with thou or you, understood, bv Rule VII. 

CJ) Adverb. (4.) Noua. (5.) Conjunction. 



» PARTICIPLES. 8* 

RX7IiIS XXII. 
Participles refer to nouns. 
EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
" The wind is rising" 

558. Rising is a present active participle, from the irregular 
verb to rise — " Pres. rise; Imp. rose; Perf. part, risen"— and it 
refers to wind, according to Rule XIII. 

EXERCISES IX SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

1- 

«* The moon is setting." " Mary was playing." 

"The sun is rising." " I have been writing.** 

*• The trees are growing." " I found him crying." 

"John was dancing." "I left him rejoicing." 

PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES. 
" The rising sun cheers us" 

559. Rising is a participial adjective, from the verb to rise — 
" Pres. rise ; Imp. rose ; Perf. part, risen" — and belongs to sun, by 
Rule IV. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED 
2. 

" The setting sun reminds us of " We view with pleasure the twink- 

declining years." ling stars." 

" The roaring winds alarm us." " The roaring cataract strikes us 
"The rippling stream pleases with awe." 

us."* " The laboring man should not be 
"The singing-master visited me." defrauded." 

3. 

" Having dined, I returned to " Having slept, he recovered his 

school." strength." 

" Having fought bravely, they were " Having retired to rest, he was 

at last (1.) overcome." seized with violent pain." 

"John, having exercised too vio- "The thief, having escaped, was 

lently, fainted." never afterwards seen in that 

region." 

4. 

" William returned, mortified at his "A child left; to follow his own irv. 

loss." clinations is most commonly 

" The stream, swollen by the rains, ruined." 

overflowed its banks." " Admired and applauded, he be* 

" The man accustomed to his glass came vain." 

seldom reforms." 

Will you parse the next lesson ? What kind of a participle is, " Having 
Will you parse rising, in the sentence, dined ?" 504. Why ? 504. 
" The rising sun ?" 559. Why is it call- Who dined, in the phrase, " Having 
ed a participial adjective? Ans. Because dined, I returned to school ?" 
it describes, like an adjective, and im- To what, then, does having dive! re- 
plies aclion, like a participle. fer? Rule XIII. Will you now parse Lha 
Will you now parse the next lesson? remaining lessons? 

i 1.1 At last is an adverbial phrase. 

8 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. 

u A dissipated son grieves his 



youth into his own house, and 
rendered to him deserved assis- 



parents." 
11 We must not neglect any known tance 

duty." " William befriended the deserted 

"My father took the forsaken man." 

6. 
M The men, being fatigued by labor, feet, was severely and justly 



sought rest in sleep." 

•* William, being dismissed from col- 
lege, retired to the country." 

4 Thomas, after having been re- 
peatedly admonished to no ef- 



punished." 
"The tree, having been weighed 
down for a long time by abun- 
dance of fruit, at last (1.) fell to 
the ground." 



KULE XIV. 

Active participles, from active-transitive verbs, govern the 

objective case. 

" James is beating John" 

560. John is a proper noun, of the third person, singular 
number, masculine gender, objective case, and governed by beat- 
ing, by Rule XIV. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 
1. 



" John is striking William." 
" Susan is studying her lesson." 
" Mary has been repeating her les- 
son to her mother." 
11 The teamster, seeing the stage 
upsetting, ran and prevented 
it." 
" Having obtained my request, I 



immediately set off for Bos- 
ton." 

" I spied the cat watching a 
mouse." 

"Having given directions to his 
servants, he left his family 
and took the stage for Wash- 
ington." 



" He delights in fighting" 

561. Fighting is a participial noun, in the objective case, and 
governed by the preposition in, according to Rule X. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED, 
1. 

" Job was exhausted by wrest- " Job practises fencing daily." 

ling." " The instructer teaches reading, 

** Mary acquired a livelihood by writing, and spelling, in his 

sewing." school." 

54 Walter excels in writing." " Whispering is forbidden in 

* Fishing delights me." school." 



"Beating John." Will you parse 
Johnl 560. Beating? 558. 

Will you parse the remaining exercises 
in the lesson above ? 

" In fighting." Will you parse fight- 



ing ? 561. Why is fighting called a par- 
ticipial noun? Jins. Because it implies 
action, like a participle, and has, also, 
the sense of a noun. 

Will you parse the rest of the exercises 
in this lesson ? 



(1 .) At last is an adverbial phrase. 



EXERCISES. 87 

2. 
562. u You will much oblige me by sending those books" 

Sending is a participial noun, in the objective case, and 
governed by the preposition by, according to Rule X. 

Books is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, 
neuter gender, objective case, and governed by the active par- 
ticiple sending, according to Rule XIV. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 



14 James derives pleasure from read- 
ing useful books." 

4 John is above doing a mean ac- 
tion." 

34 Parents are pleased at seeing 
the progress of their chil- 
dren." 



"Mary's reading has been useful 
in improving her taste in come 
position." 

44 1 am discouraged from under- 
taking this study." 

44 A good instructer takes no delight 
in punishing." 



The present participle, when used as a noun, often has the definite article 
the before it, and the preposition of after k ; as, " By the observing of truth, 
you will command respect." With equal propriety, however, it may be 
said, "By observing truth," &c, omitting both the article and the pre- 
position. If we use the article without the preposition, or the preposition 
without the article, the expression will appear awkward : hence, 

Note VII L The definite article the should be used before, 
and the preposition of after, participial nouns, or they should 
both be omitted. 



EXERCISES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 



By the observing these rules, he 

will avoid mistakes." 
He prepared them for the event 

by the sending to them proper 

information." 
In writing of his letter, he made 

some mistakes." 



44 In the regarding his interests, 
he neglected the public af- 
fairs." 

44 He was sent to prepare the way 
by preaching of repentance." 

44 Keeping of one day in seven (1.) 
is required of Christians." 



PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 



William calls George." 

John's father will reward his in- 
dustry." 

George's father's carriage passed 
the tavern." 

If William return, he will be dis- 
appointed." 

John has beaten his little brother 
most shamefully." 



"John will be punished for his 
insolence." 

44 We may improve under our in- 
structer, if we choose." 

44 He who would excel in learn- 
ing, must be attentive to his 
books." 

44 She begins to improve." 



"By sending those books." Will you 
parse sending ? 562. books ? 562. 

Will you parse the remaining exercises 
in this lesson ? 

From what are present participles 
formed? 497. 

How may participles in ing be distin- 
guished from other parts of speech of the 
same termination ? 500. 



Instead of saying, " Bj ♦he observing 
these rules," what should l.iv? Why? 
Note VIII. 

Will you now parse and correct the 
exercises under Note VIII. ? 

Will you parse the promiscuous exer* 
cises in Syntax? Next take those to be 
written. 



(1.) Seven Is a numeral adjective, belonging to days, understood, by Note 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

563. Will you compose a sentence, containing an active-transitive verb! 
One, containing a neuter verb? One, containing a passive verb? One, 
expressing the same sense as the last in an active form ? Will you com- 
pose a sentence having a verb in the potential mood ? One, in the sub- 
junctive mood? One, in the imperative mood? One, in the infinitive 
mood ? One, having an adjective in the superlative degree ? One, hav« 
ing the article an correctly used before a vowel ? One, having an adjec- 
tive in the positive degree that has in itself a superlative signification ? 
One, containing the relative whose ? One, containing which ? One, with 
what used as a compound pronoun? One, having who used as an inter- 
rogative pronoun ? One, having a verb in the subjunctive mood, common 
form ? 

Will you construct one or more sentences, which will make sense with 
the word truth contained in them? One, with the word wisdom contain- 
ed in it ? One, with the word knowledge ? One, with the word learn* 
ing ? One, with the word science ? 

Will you construct a sentence about prudence ? One about history ? 
One or^more on the following subjects, namely, geography, gardening, 
farms, orchards ? 

Will you fill up the following phrases with suitable words to make 

sense, namely, " Industry health ?" " By — we acquire ?" 

lt In youth characters ?" "Arithmetic business?" 

14 Washington live hearts of his ?" 



XLIX. OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 

564. The verbs have, he, will and do, when they are unconnected with a 
principal verb, expressed or understood, are not auxiliaries, but principal 
verbs ; as, " We have enough ;" " I am grateful ;" " He wills it to be so ;" 
41 They do as they please." In this view, they also have their auxiliaries ; 
as, "I shall have enough ;" "I will be grateful," &c. 

565. The peculiar force of the several auxiliaries will appear from the 
following account of them. 

566. JDo and did mark the action itself, or the time of it. with greater 
energy and positiveness ; as, " I do speak truth ;" " I did respect him ;" 
44 Here am I, for thou didst call me." They are of great use in negative 
(1.) sentences ; as, " I do not fear ;" " I did not write." They are almost 
universally employed in asking questions which may be answered by yet 
or no; as, "Does he learn?" ".Did he not write?" They sometimes also 
supply (2.) the place of another verb, and make the repetition of it, in tha 
same or a subsequent sentence, unnecessary; as, "You attend not to your 
studies as he does;" (i. e. " as he attends," &e.) "I shall come, if I canj 
but if I do not, please to excuse me;" (i. e. "if I come not.") 

567. May and might, express the possibility or liberty of doing a thing; 
ran and could, the power ; as, " It may rain ;" "I may write or read ;" 
'• He might have improved more than he has;" "He can write much bet- 
ter than he could last year." 

X7..J.X. Which are the auxiliary verbs? Wha.t effect have do and did in sen- 

512. tences 1 566. Give an example. 566. 

What is an auxiliary verb? 511. Will you give an example in which tha 

What a principal one ?* repetition of the principal verb is un- 

When are have, be, will, and do princi- necessary ? 566. 

pal verbs ? 564. Give an example of What do may and might express I 

each. 564. 567. 



(1.) Denying. (2.) To fill up. # See question to 197, 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 89 

568. Must is sometimes called in for a helper, and denotes necessity ; as, 
" We must speak the truth, whenever we do speak, and we must not pre- 
varicate." (1.) 

569. Will, in the first person singular and plural, intimates (2.) resolution 
and promising ; in the second and third person, it only foretells ; as, <k I 
will reward the good, and will punish the wicked ;" " We will remember 
benefits, and be grateful ;" " Thou wilt, or he will, repent of that folly ;" 
*' You, or they, will have a pleasant walk." 

570. Shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretells ; in tha 
second and third persons, it promises, commands, or threatens; as, "1 
shall go abroad ;" " We shall dine at home ;" '• Thou shalt, or you shall, 
inherit the land ;" "Ye shall do justice, and love mercy ;" " They shall 
account for their misconduct." The following passage is not translated (3.) 
according to the distinct and proper meanings of the words shall and will : 
11 Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life ; and 
I will dwell in the house of the Lord for ever." It ought to be, " will 
follow me," and, "I shall dwell." — The foreigner who, as it is said, fell 
into the Thames, and cried out, "I will be drowned! nobody shall help 
me !" made a sad misapplication of these auxiliaries. 

571. These observations respecting the import (4.) of the verbs will and 
shall, must be understood of explicative sentences ; for when the sentence 
is interrogative, just the reverse, (5.) for the most part, takes place : thus, 
" I shall go," " You will go," express event (6.) only ; but, i4 Will you 
go ?" imports intention ; and, " Shall I go ?" refers to the will of another. 
But, " He shall go," and, " Shall he go ?" both imply will ; expressing or 
referring to a command. 

572. When the verb is put in the subjunctive mood, the meaning of these 
auxiliaries likewise undergoes (7.) some alteration ; as the learners will 
readily perceive by a few examples : " He shall proceed ;" " If he shall pro- 
ceed ;" " You shall consent ;" " If you shall consent." These auxiliaries 
are sometimes interchanged (8.) in the indicative and subjunctive moods ; 
to convey the same meaning of the auxiliary ; as, " He will not return ;" 
44 If he shall not return ;" 44 He shall not return ;" 44 If he will not return." 

573. Would primarily (9.) denotes inclination of will ; and should, obliga- 
tion ; but they both vary their import, and are often used to express simple 
event. 

574. Do and have are sometimes used as principal verbs, according to the 
following 

SYNOPSIS. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. I do. I have. 

Imp. I did. 1 had. 

Perf. I have done. I have had. 

Plup. I had done. I had had. 

1 Put. I shall or will do. I shall or will have. 

2 Put. I shall have done. I shall have had. 

What is the use of must? 568. all the days of my life ; and I will dweH 

What does will intimate in the first in the house of the Lord for ever." 570. 

j>erson singular? plural? 569. Give an In what consists the mistake in the 

example. 569. Tn the second and third expression which the foreigner made 

persons? 569. Give an example. 569. when he fell into the Thames? 570. 

What does shall intimate in the first What do shall and will denote in inter- 

person? 570. Give an example. 570. rogative sentences; as, "Shall I go j* 

In what particular is the translation of " Will you go ?" 571. 

the following passage incorrect? "Sure- What do would and should primarily 

ly goodness and mercy shall follow me denote ? 573. 

(1.) To shun .he truth. (2.) Shotrs. (3.) Expressed. (4.) Meaning. (5.) Contrary 

160 What happens. (7J Suffers. (8.) To exchange one for the other. (9.) In th« first place 

8* 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

575. POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Pres. I may or can do. I may or can have. 

Imp. I might, could, would, or I might, could, would, or should 

should do. have. 

Ferf ] may or can have done. I may or can have had. 

Flup. I might, could, would, or I might, could, would, or should 
should have done. have had. 

576 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pres. 1. If I do. If I have, &c. 

576—1. IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Do you, or Do you do. Have you, or Do you have. 

577. INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Pres. To do. To have. 
Per/. To have done. To have had. 

578. PARTICIPLES. 
Pres. Doing. Having. 
Perf. Done. Had. 
Comp. perf. Having done. Having had. 



L. OF DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

579. Defective verbs are those which are used only in some 
of the moods and tenses. 

580. The following are the principal ones : 

Pres. Tense. Imp. Tense. Perf. Participle, 

May, Might, (Wanting.) 

Can, Could, ■ 

Will, Would, 

Shall, Should, 

Must, Must, 

Ought, Ought, 

■ Quoth, ■ 

581. Of these, ought and must, you perceive, are not varied. 

582. Ought and quoth are always used as principal verbs. Ought is the 
same in the imperfect tense as in the present, and is always followed by an 
infinitive ; as, " He o"^ht to study ;" " He ought to have read." In this 
last example, ought is in the imperfect ; and in the first, it is in the present. 
This we determine by the infinitive, which follows the verb, thus : when 
the present infinitive follows ought, ought is in the present tense ; but when 
the perfect infinitive follows it, it is in the imperfect tense. 

583. In English, verbs are often used both in a transitive and an intran- 
sitive, or neuter signification. Thus, to spread is an active transitive verb 
in the sentence, " He spread the report through the town ;" but it is intran 
3itive in the sentence, " The report spread through the town." 

Will you repeat the synopsis of do Which are not varied ? 581. 

through all the moods? of have? How are ought and quoth always used ? 

Will you conjugate do in the present 582. 

tense ? have in the perfect tense ? How can you tell when ought is in the 

Wha-: is the perfect participle of do? present tense ? 582. 

of have? the compound perfect of do? of When is it in the imperfect tense ? 582 

have? Give an example of each tense. 582. 

L. What are defective verbs ? 579. When is tofiatteji transitive, and when 

Will you mention the principal ones, intransitive? 583. 

with their imperfect tenses? 580. How, then, are verbs often used ? 581 






DEFECTIVE VERBS. 91 

584. A neuter or intransitive verb, by the addition of a preposition, may 
become a compound active-transitive verb ; as, to smile is intransitive ; it 
cannot, therefore, be followed by an objective case, nor be changed into 
the passive form. We cannot say, "She smiled him," or, "He wa3 
smiled;" but we say, very properly, "She smiled on him;" "He was 
smiled on by her." 

585. Prepositions affect the meaning of verbs in different ways. To cast 
means to throw; as, "He cast a stone at her." To cast up, however, 
^neans to compute ; as, "He casts up his accounts." In all instances in 
which the preposition follows the verb, and modifies its meaning, it should 
be considered a part of the verb, and be so treated in parsing. 

586. There are some verbs, which, although they admit an objective 
case after them, still do not indicate the least degree of action; as, "I 
resemble my father." This seeming inconsistency may be easily recon- 
ciled by reflecting that, in all such cases, the verb has a direct reference to 
its object. Of this nature are the verbs retain, resemble, own, have, &c. 

587. Some neuter or intransitive verbs admit of a passive form, and are 
thence called neuter passive verbs ; as, " John goes home to-night." Here 
goes is an intransitive verb. But in the sentence, " John is gone home," 
is gone is a neuter passive verb. Again, in the phrase, " William comes," 
comes is an intransitive verb; and in the phrase, " William is come," is 
come is a neuter passive verb. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

1. 

■ William had had many advantages " He has had many precious oppor 

before he improved them in a tunities." 

proper manner." "John will do as his instructer 

H A good scholar will not do what (1.) directs." 

is forbidden by his instructer." " He may have had time." 

2. 

14 1 own this book." u I cannot believe him." 

" Charles resembles his parents." " His father does not hesitate to 

u He retains his place." trust him." 

3. 

" The farmer casts seed into the " She smiles sweetly." 
ground." " She smiled on John." 

"The merchant casts up his ac- " John was smiled on by fortune in 
counts oflen." every undertaking." 

4. 

" The instructer has come." " Mary was gone before her mother 

" Our instructer has come." came." 

" William has gone to visit his "When they came to town, they 

parents." made many purchases." 
•* Susan has gone." 

How can an intransitive vetb be- Is resemble, strictly speaking, a transit 

come transitive ? 584. Give an example, tive verb ? 586. 

584. Why does it admit an object after it ? 

What does to cast mean ? 585. 586. 

Meaning of to cast up ? 585. There are several verbs of this class; 

When may the preposition be reckoned will you name some of them ? 58C. 

« part of the verb? 585. What is a neuter passive verb? 587. 

How should it be considered in pars- Give an example. 587. 

uig ? 585. Will you now parse the next lessons? 

(1.) tVhat stands for, " that which," or, " the thiug which." Apply Rules V. VI. aud VIIL 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

LI. OF ADVERBS. 

588. Adverbs are words jcined to verbs, participles, adjoo 
tives, and other adverbs, to qualify them. 

589. Expressions like the following, namely, a few days ago, long since 
none at all, at length, in vain, by no means, a great deal, &c, are denomi« 
nated adverbial phrases, when they are used to qualify verbs or participles, 
by expressing the manner, time or degree ot action. 

590. The definite article the is frequently placed before adverbs of the 
comparative and superlative degrees, to give the expression more force ; as, 
" The more he walks, the better he feels.'' When the article is used ifl 
this sense, both the article and adverb may be reckoned an adverbial phrase, 
and be so considered in parsing. 

591. You have doubtless noticed that most wOrds ending in ly are ad- 
verbs. The reason of this is that ly is a contraction of the adverb like : 
thus, from manlike we form manly : gentlemanly is a contraction of gentle- 
manlike. — Hence, 

592. If you meet with a word ending in Vj, implying in its signification 
the idea of like, you may conclude at once that i', is an adverb. 

RULE 2'JE. 
Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other 

adverbs. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
" In vain we look for perfect happiness" 

593. In vain is an adverbial phrase, and qualifies look, accord 
mg to Rule IX. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

11 John has come again, but William " William acted very nobly." 

has not." " I will by no means consent." 

"Very many persons fail of happi- " He wrote a long letter a few days 

ness." ago." (1.) 

u A vast many evils are incident to "John was writing carelessly." 

man in his wearisome journey " I have admonished her once and 

through life." % again." 

"The instructress has at length " A few days ago, there was much 

arrived." excitement in town." 

LI. What is the meaning of adverb 7 When are they to be considered ad 

828. verbial phrases? 589. 

To what is the adverb joined ? 588. ls the artic | e the ever j oined to an ad . 

For what purpose ? 588. verb ? 590 . For what purpose ? 590. 

How many different parts of speech TX rv . j »i. »• i j j L r 

does it qualify ? 588. ' . What do th A^ tlcle and adverb form 

Which are they ? 588. in sucn cases ? 5G0 - 

What is the definition of an adverb ? How 1S »* l ° be considered in parsing? 

588. 5^0. 

Are adverbs compared ?* How came most words ending in ly to 

Will you compare wisely? 235. soon? be considered adverbs? 591. Give ais 

234. example. 591. 

How are they compared? 236. How can we determine between words 

Will vou compare the adverbs much? ending in ly, whether or not they are ad- 

well? bad? ill? 237. verbs? 592. 

Some adverbs are not regular in their What rule do you apply when yon 

comparison, will you name one? 237. parse an adverb? IX. 

Will you name four or five adverbial " In vain we look." Will you parse 

phrases ? 589. in vain ? 593. 

(1.) Ifew days ago— m adverbial phrase. * See question to 234. 






PREPOSITIONS. 93 

Note IX. To qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and 
other adverbs, we should use adverbs ; but to qualify nouns, 
we should use adjectives. 

SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

u William writes good."* " Harriet dresses neat." 

14 Susan studies diligent." " On conditions suitably to his rank." 

" He speaks fluently and reasons " He speaks correct." - 

correct." " Mary sings admirable." 

"John writes tolerable well, but *' He writes elegant." 

readst miserable." " He reads and spells very bad." 

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

594. Will you write down a sentence, containing a compound active, 
transitive verb? One, having a neuter-passive verb? 

Will you compose two or more sentences about a lion? Two or more, 
about sheep ? Two or more, about a cow ? One, about an ox? One, about 
a dog? One, about a cat ? One, about Africans? One, about Indians? 
One, about fishes ? One, about steam-boat disasters? One, about stage 
accidents ? 



LII. OF PREPOSITIONS. 

595. Prepositions are used to connect words, and to snow 
the relation between them. 

596. We not unfrequently meet with verbs compounded of a preposition 
and verb ; as, " to uphold," " to invest, " " to overlook ;" and this com- 
position sometimes gives a new sense to the verb ; as, " to understand," 
" to withdraw." But the preposition more frequently occurs after the verb, 
and separate from it; as, " to cast up," " to fall on." The sense of the 
verb, in this case, is also materially affected by the preposition. 

598. The prepositions after, before, above, beneath, and several others, 
sometimes appear to be adverbs, and may be so considered; as, " They 
had their reward soon after;" "He died not long before;" "He dwells 
above :" but if the noun time or place be added, they lose their adverbial 
form ; as, " He died not long before" [that time] , &c. 

599. There is a peculiar propriety in distinguishing the correct use of the 
different prepositions. For illustration, we will take the following senten- 
ces : " He walks with a staff by moonlight ;" " He was taken by stratagem, 
and killed with a sword." Put the one preposition for the other, and say y 

Will you next parse the remaining ex- compounded? 596. Give an example. 

ercises? 596. 

When should we use adverbs? Note Wnere is the preposition more freo 

««r»- „• n *r . , v quently placed? 596. Give an example. 

When adjectives ? Note IX. 596 

tt.r.^men'Se^r^-" WherCin " . Wi » *<>" name fo " r P"PO*ition 8 which 

Win you now ,?arse and correct the re- """»'* •■*■■«■ *™™ t0 •» •**"»* 

tnaining exercises? ' 

LII. What is the meaning of vreposi- How ma y tne y *» converted into pre. 

£o,??244. positions again ? 598. 

What are prepositions ? 595. " He walks by a staff with moonlight M 

Will you repeat the list? 247. Will you correct this sec*.ence, and then 

With what are verbs not unfrequently repeat the phrase ? 

* For the adjective pood, we should use the adverb well, according to Note IX. 

t Reads agrees with John understood, rod is, therefore, couuected with writes by the conjunction but agre* 
*#iy (o Rule XL 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" He walks hy a staff with moonlight ;" •' He was taken with stratagem, 
and killed by a sword;" and it will appear that they differ in signification 
more than one, at first view, would be apt to imagine. 

RULE X. 

Prepositions govern the objective case. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

"John lives within his income." 

600. Within is a preposition. 

Income is a common noun, of the third person, singular num* 
Ser, neuter gender, objective case, and governed by within, ao 
cording to Rule X. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

•* Thomas made his fortune by in- He made the sun to shine by 

dustry." day, and the moon (1.) to give 

44 Susan labors with her needle for light by night." 

a livelihood." " Beneath the oak lie acorns in 

u Respecting that affair, there was great abundance." 

a controversy." " John, who is at all times watch- 

" In six days God made the world, ful of his own interest, will 

and all things that are in it. attend to that concern." 

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

601. Will you fill up the following sentences with suitable prepositions 

to make sense? "John was — the house when he was seized a 

fit." u The busy bee — summer provides food — the approaching winter 
— the prudence — a rational being." 

Will you supply the objects to the following? "James was catch- 
ing ." " He was beating " " He supports ." 

Will you supply agents or nominative cases to the following ? was 

running." " was dancing." 

Will you supply verbs in the following? "A dutiful child his 

parents." " Grammar us correctly." 

Will you compose two or more sentences about boys ? One, about 
whales ? One, about snakes ? One, about foxes ? One, about parents ? 
One, about brothers ? One, about sisters ? One, about uncles ? One, about 
aunts ? 



LIU. OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

602. A conjunction is a word that is chiefly used to cor** 
nect sentences, so as, out of two or more sentences, to make 
but one. 

Will you repeat the rule respecting the What is a simple sentence ? 253. Give 

government of nouns by prepositions ?X. an example. A compound sentence ? 

■• John lives within his income." Will 256. Give an example, 
you parse within 1 600 income? 600. Why called compound? 254 

Will you now take the remaining ex- LIII. Meaning of conjunction? 257. 
ercises to be parsed; after which, those What is a conjunction ? 602. 
10 be written ? Meaning of copulative? 264. 



<l.) The sense is, " He made the moon." Moon, then, is in the objective case, governed oy made understood 
■ad connected witb sun, by Rule XI. 






INTERJECTIONS. 95 

G03. Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect sen- 
tences ; as, " Blessed is the man who feareth the Lord." 

604. Conjunctions very often unite sentences when they appear to unite 
only words; as, in the following sentences: "Duty and interest forbid 
vicious indulgences." "Wisdom or folly governs us." Each of these 
forms of expression contains two sentences, namely, the first, " Duty for- 
bids vicious indulgences;" "Interest forbids vicious indulgences:" the 
second, " Wisdom governs us ;" " Folly governs us." 

RXJX*E XI. 

Conjunctions connect verbs of the same mood and tense 9 
and nouns or pronouns of the same case. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
805. " William writes and ciphers" 

And is a ccfulative conjunction. 

Ciphers is a regular active intransitive verb, from the verb 
to cipher — " Pres. cipher; Imperf. ciphered; Per. part, ciphered. 
1. I cipher; 2. You cipher; 3. He or William ciphers" — made in the 
indicative mood, present tense, third person singular, and 
agrees with William understood, and is connected to writes by the 
conjunction and, agreeably to Rule XL 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

" John ciphers rapidly, and reads " Though he is lively, yet he is not 

correctly." too volatile." 

" If we contend about trifles, and " If he has promised, he should act 

violently maintain our opin- accordingly." 

ions, we shall gain but few " He denied that he circulated the 

friends." report." 

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

606. Will you compose a sentence containing the conjunction if? One, 
containing and ? As many sentences as there are conjunctions which 
follow ; each sentence containing one ? Although. Unless. For. Be- 
cause. Therefore. Or. Neither. Nor. 

Will you compose a sentence about Jackson ? One, about Clay ? One, 
about Monroe ? One, about Madison ? 



LIV. OF INTERJECTIONS. 

607. Interjections are words thrown in between the 
parts of sentences, to express the passions or sudden feelings 
of the speaker. 

What is the use of the copulative con* Do conjunctions ever connect senten 

Junction? 265. ces when they appear to connect words 

Will you repeat the list of copulative only ? 004. Give an example. (304. 

conjunctions? 266. " William writes and ciphers." Will 

What does disjunctive signify? 271. you parse andl c05 . ciphers? {m . 

What does the disjunctive conjunction w .„ . .. .. . .■_»«. 

connect? °74 Wl11 y° u ' ,n tne next place, take the 

Will you repeat the list of them ? 275. exercises to be parsed and written, and 

What is the rule for connecting words d,s P ose of them ? 

by conjunctions? XI. LIV. What is the meaning of inte* 

What other words, besides conjunc- jecfion ? 283. 

lions and prepositions, connect? G03. What are interjections? 607. 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

608. We do not say, "Ah, I !" "Oh, I!" but, "Ah, me!" "Oh, 
me!" using the objective case after the interjection. The pronoun here 
spoken of, you perceive, is of the first person : hence, 

Note X. Pronouns of the first person are put in the objec- 
tive case, after the interjections Oh ! O ! ah! &c. 

609. We say, " O thou persecutor!" " Oh, ye hypocrites!" " O thou 
who dwellest," &c. : hence, 

Note XL The interjections O ! oh ! and ah ! require the 

nominative case of pronouns in the second person, 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

510, " Ah, me! I must perish." 

Ah is an interjection. 

Me is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular, objec- 
tive case, and governed by ah, agreeably to Note X. 

EXERCISES IN" SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

44 O, thou (1.) who hast murdered "Ah! unhappy (2.) thou, who art 

thy friend !" deaf (3.) to the calls of duty 

44 O, thou who hearest prayer !" and honor." 

w Ah, me ! must I endure all " Oh ! happy (4.) us, surrounded 

this ?" with so many blessings." 

SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 
611. Will you compose a sentence containing alas ? One, containing 
oh ? One, about volcanoes ? One, about lakes ? One, about islands ? One, 
about Webster the statesman ? One, about a good scholar ? One, about a 
poor scholar ? One, about a good instructer ? 



LV. OF THE AGREEMENT OF NOUNS. 

612. Apposition, in grammar, signifies the putting of two nouns m the 
same case. 

613. When I say, "John the mechanic has come," I am speaking of 
only one person ; the two nouns, John and mechanic, both meaning or 
referring to the same person ; consequer'Jy they are put, by apposition, in 
the same case: hence, 

xnrxiE xv. 

When two or more nouns, in the same sentence, signify 
the same thing, they are put, by apposition, in the same 
case. 

Will you repeat from the list six inter- Will you now take the remaining ex- 
lections? 285. ercises to be parsed and written ? 

How may an interjection generally be LV. Meaning of apposition ? 612. 

known? 286. "John the mechanic." How many 

" Ah, me !*' In what case is me? 610. persons are here spoken of? 613. Should 

What rule or note applies to me? X. then, the two nouns, John and me- 

" O thou," &c. What note applies to chanic, be in the same, or a different 

thou? XI. case? 613. 

" Ah, me V* Will you parse ah? me? What is the rule for this agreement? 

SiO. XV. 

♦- — i. . ■ m 

a) For thou, apply Note XI. (2.) Agrees with thou, by Rule IV. 

(3.) Belongs to uho, by Rule IV. (4.) Apply Rule IV. 




EXERCISES. 9? 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

614. " Webster the statesman has left us" 

Statesman is a common noun, masculine gender, third person, 
singular number, nominative cake, and put in apposition with Web- 
ster, by Rule XV. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

1. 

* John the Baptist was beheaded." " Cicero, the orator, flourished in 

* David, the thief, was apprehend- the time of Catiline, the con* 

ed." spirator." 

" Johnson, the bookseller, has failed " I visit Thompson, the professor, 

in business." often." 

*I consulted Williams, the law- "John, the miller, died yester- 

yer." day." 

2. 
u tf John will not go, I will go my- "We will inspect the goods our- 

self." (1.) selves." 

* You yourself are in fault." "I, I am the man who committed 
•* They themselves were mistaken." the deed." 

Remark 1. — For the same reason that one noun agrees with another in 
case, it agrees with it in number and person also. 

u I, Alexander, by the grace of God, " We, the representatives of the 
emperor of all the Russians, people of these colonies, dc 

promulgate this law." make this declaration." 

Remark 2. — When one noun describes or qualifies another, the one sc 
qualifying becomes an adjective in sense, and may be so considered in 
parsing. Accordingly, Tremont, in the phrase, " Tremont House," is an 
adjective belonging to House, by Rule IV. 

615. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

" The Marlborough Hotel is situated " John Dobson was in town yester- 

in Washington-street." day." 

"The firm of Messrs. Williams & " John Johnson, the blacksmith, ha3 

Sons, has failed." broken his leg." 

Remark 3. — When the nouns which refer to the same person or thing are 
separated by verbs ; as, " Webster is a statesman," it is customary to 
apply one or more of the following rules : 

1. Any verb may have the same case after it as before it, when both words 
refer to the same thing. 

2. The verb to be, through all its variations, has the same case after it as 
that which next precedes it. 

"Webster the statesman." Will you "Tremont House." What part of 

par«(? statesman ? 014. sp. ech is Tremont? Remark 2. How 

Will you now parse the succeeding ex- used here? Remark 2. Will you parse 

crcises? it in full ? 

" I will go myself." Will you parse Will you now parse all the exercises 

myself? under Remark 2? 

Hqw is the compound personal pro- What is the rule or rules usually giv. 

noun formed in the singular ? 380. How en for parsing statesman, in the phrase, 

in the plural? 380. " Webster is a statesman ?" Remark 3, 

When one noun is put in apposition 1, 2, 3, 4. 

with another, in what particulars does it In the same sentence, do Webster and 

agree with it ? Remark 1. statesman both mean or refer to the same 

Will you now parse the next cxer- person? In what case, then, ought they 

rises? ' to be? 013. By what rule ? XV. 

(I.J Myself i*a compound personal Drououn, first person, UBCttUr, nominative case, and put in appositiof 
With /, by Rule XV. 

G 9 



58 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



3. Passive verbs of naming, judging, (J-c. have the same case after them at 
before them. 

4. Neuter verbs have the same care after them a? before them. 

616. The foregoing rules, in the opinion of the writer, are wholly unne- 
cessary, tending merely to confuse the mind of the learner by requiring him 
to make a distinction in form, when there exists none in principle. In cor- 
roboration of this fact, Mr. Murray has the following remark : — 

617. " By these examples it appears, that the verb to be has no govern- 
ment of case, but serves in all its forms as a conductor to the cases ; so that 
the two cases, which, in the construction of the sentence, are the next be- 
fore and after it, must always be alike. Perhaps this subject will be mora 
intelligible by observing that the words, in the cases preceding and following 
the verb to be, may be said to be in apposition to each other. Thus, in the 
Sentence, ' I understood it to be him, 1 the words it and him are in apposi* 
tan ; that is, they refer to the same thing, and are in the same case." 

618. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

1. 



** Webster is a statesman." 

44 John is a good scholar." 

44 William will become a distinguish- 
ed and valuable citizen." 

•' She walks a queen.'' (1.) 

41 He is styled Lord (1.) Mayor (1.) 
of London." 

44 He was named John." (1.) 



2. 



(1.) 
(2.) 



44 She moves a queen." (1.) 

41 Julius Caesar was that Roman gen* 

eral who conquered the Gauls." 
"Torn struts a soldier." (1.) 
44 Will sneaks a scrivener." ■ 
44 Claudius Nero, Caligula's uncle, 

a senseless fellow, obtained the 

kingdom." 

is the son of Mr. (2.) John 

Quincy (2.) Adams." (1.) 
4t She is not now the person whom 

they represented her (1.) to 

have been." 
44 Whom (5.) do you fancy them to 

be?" 
44 The professor was appointed tutor 

to the prince." 

Remark 3. — It not unfrequently happens that the connecting verb is omit' 
ted ; as, " They made him captain ;" that is, to be captain. 

3. 

44 They named him John." " T* ,y proclaimed him king." 

v The soldiers made him gen- 4 ' His countrymen crowned him em 
?ral." peror." 

619. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED 
• 4 It might have been him, (6.) but " She is the person who I under. 



• 4 Susan took her to be Mary." 
"I took him to be General 

Grant." 
44 We at first took it to be her, but 

afterwards were convinced that 

(3.) it was not she." 
44 He is not the person who (4.) it 

seemed he was." 
44 1 understood it to be him (1.) who 



there is no proof (7.) of it." 
** Though I was blamed, it could 

not have been me." 
44 1 saw one who I took to be she." 



stood it to have been." 
44 Who do you think me to be ?" 
14 Whom do men say that I am ?" 
44 Whom think ye that I am ?" 



What office does the verb to be perform 
between cases ? 617. 

Are the cases next before and after it, 
alike, or different ? 617. 

What is the opinion of Mr. Murray 
respecting the cases before and after to 
be? 617. 

How does he think it and him should 



be parsed in the phrase, " I understood it 
to be him?" 617. 

Will you now parse lessons 1, 2, and 3 ? 

Is the verb to be always expressed ? Re- 
mark 3. Give an example. Remark 3. 

Will you now take the sentences to be 
parsed and corrected; also, those to be 
written ? 



(1.) Apply Rule XV. (2.) Remark 2. (3.) Conjunction. 

by Rule XV (5.) Whom agrees with them, by Rule XV (6. 

cording to Rule XV. (7 J Apply Rule VI. 



(4.) Who is put in apposition with he 
Him should be he to agree with it, ac 



NOUNS. 99 

620. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Will you compose a sentence having nouns in apposition ? One, having 
nouns in apposition, but separated by a verb ? One, having a noun used as 
an adjective ? 

Will you construct a sentence having in it the word who ? One, having 
whose ? One, having whom ? One, having what ? One, having that ? One, 
having man? One, having woman? One, having boy? One, having girls? 
One, having parents ? 



LVI. OF NOUNS USED INDEPENDENTLY. 

621. To address signifies to speak to; as, " James, your father hag 
come." The name of the person addressed must always be of the second 
person ; and a r.oun in this situation, when it has no verb to agree with it, 
and is wholly disconnected with the rest of the sentence, is said to be inde- 
pendent. Hence, 

HULS XVI. 

When an address is made, the name of the person or thing 
addressed is in the nominative case independent. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

622. " John, will you assist me V* 

John is a proper noun, of the second person, singular number, 

MASCULINE GENDER, and NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT, according to 

Rule XVI. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX CONTINUED. 

1. 

" My lords, (1.) the time has come "Rufus, you must improve your 

when we must take some de- time." 

cisive measures. 1 * " Gentlemen of the jury." 

" In making this appeal to you, my "James, (1.) study (2.) your book." 

fellow-citizens, I rely entirely " William, do try to get your lesson 

on your candor." to-day." 

2. 

• 4 Boys, attend to your lessons." "My dear children, let no root of 

** Girls, come into school." bitterness spring up among 

" Did you speak to me, girls ?" you." 

LVI. " James, your father has come." When is a noun independent ? 621. 

Which word here is the name of the per- What is the rule for a noun put inde* 

bom addressed? pendently? XVI. 

What is the meaning of to address? In the sentence, " John, will you assist 

621. me ?" will you parse John ? 022. 

Of what person is a noun when an Will you n?xt parse the rest of the 

address is made ? 621. exercises in this rule ? 



(1.) Rule XVI. (2.) Imperative mood, and agrees with thou or you understood, by Rule VII. 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LVII. OF NOUNS IN THE CASE ABSOLUTE. 

- 623. In the phrase, " The sun being risen, we set sail," the first clause 
of the sentence, namely, " The sun oeing risen," has nothing to do with 
the remainder: the noun and participle may, therefore, when taken together, 
be said to be in the nominative case independent ; but as we have already 
one case of this nature, we will, for the sake of making a distinction, cal 1 
this (the noun joined with a participle) the nominative case absolute. Hence, 

HULE XVII. 
Jl noun 01 'pronoun before a participle, and independem 
of the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative case 
absolute. 

624. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

* The sun (1.) being risen, (2.) we "Wellington having returned to 

departed." England, tranquillity was re- 

** Egypt being conquered, Alexander stored to France." 

returned to Syria." " Bonaparte being conquered, the 

" Shame being lost, all virtue was king was restored." 

lost." "The conditions being observed, 

"The soldiers retreating, victory the bargain was a mutual 

was lost." benefit." 

625. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

•• Him (3.) only excepted, who was " Him being destroyed, the re- 

a murderer." maining robbers made their 

•* Her being dismissed, the rest of escape." 
the scholars behaved well." 



LVIII. OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Note XII. — A verb in the infinitive mood is sometimes 
placed independently ; as, " To be frank, I own I have injured 
you." 

626. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

"To confess the truth, I was in " To tell the plain truth, I persuaded 

fault." him to stay." 

" To display his power, he oppres- " To convince you, I will continue 

sed his soldiers." here till you return." 

LVII. "The sun being risen, we set LVIII. *' To confess the truth, I 

eail." How many words in this sen- was," &c. How is to confess used? — 

tence, Hsed independently, are taken to- Note XII. 

gether ? 623. What is the rule for it ? Note XII. 

W ^ VL 1 * 8 case denominated the case What is the infinitive mood used for 1 



479. 



absolute? 623. 

x What is the rule for the case absolute ? How many tenses has jt ? m 

Will you now take the parsing exer- What is its usual si g» ? 517 - 
cises under Rule XVII., and then the Will you now parse the exercises un- 
sentences to be corrected * der Note XII. ? 

(I. ) In the nominative case absolute with being risen, by Rule XVII. (2.) Rule XIII. 

(3.) When a nouu is in the case absolutt, it should be in the nominative case. Him should therefore be A«, 
\y Rule Xvji. 



MOOD. 101 

11 To play is pleasant." What is pleasant ? " To play." The infinitive 
to play is, then, the nominative case to is. " Thou shalt not kill, is required 
of all men." What is required? " Thou shalt not kill." The verb is re- 
quired, then, agrees with " Thou shalt not kill," as its nominative. Hence, 

626-1. Note XIII. — The infinitive mood, or part of a 

sentence, is frequently put as the nominative case to a verb of 

the third person singular. 

627. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

94 To excel requires much exer- "Thou shalt not kill, is the com- 

tion." mand of God." 

" To abandon friends will sink a " Honor thy father and thy mo- 
man's character." ther, is required of all men." 

"To practise religion is our du- "To write a fair hand requires 

ty." practice." 

Remark 1. — To excel is the nominative case to requires, by Note XIII., 
and requires agrees with to excel, by Rule VII. In parsing, " Thou shalt 
not kill," we first apply Rules VI., VII. and IX. The whole phrase is 
considered the nominative to is required, by Note XIII. 

2. The infinitive mood, or a part of a sentence, is frequently the object 
of a transitive verb ; as, " Boys love to play." What do boys love ? " To 
play." The object of love, then, is to play. " Children do not consider 
how much has been done for them by their parents." Consider what? 
"How much has been done for them by their parents ;" including for the 
object of the verb the whole phrase in italics. 

Note XIV. — The infinitive mood or part of a sentence, may- 
have an adjective or participle agreeing with it, when there is 
no noun, either expressed or understood, to which the adjective 
may belong. 

628. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

" To see the sun is pleasant." " Defraud not thy neighbour, is 
"To practise virtue will be produc- binding on all." 

tive of happiness" "To do good to our enemies, is not 
" To be ridiculed is unpleasant." natural to our hearts." 

Remarks. — Pleasant agrees with, "to see the sun," by Note XIV. Bind- 
ing agrees with, " Defraud not thy neighbour," by the same authority. To 
is apply Rule VII. ; to sun, Rule VIII. ; to the infinitive to see, Note XIII. 

629. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Will you compose one or more sentences having an infinitive governed 
by a participle? One, using an infinitive after a noun? One, describing 
the manner of playing ball ? One, or more, on the manner of playing 
tag? One, on the duty of children to mind their parents? One, or more, 
on industry ? One, on the business you intend to pursue for life ? 

" To play is pleasant. " What is plea- Since we have a rule for to love, as a 

sant ? What, then, is the nominative to verb, there is no necessity for considering 

is ? 626-1. Rule? Note XIII. it the object in parsing : what rule, then, 

" Thou shalt not kill, is required of all will you apply to it ? XII. 

men." What is required ? Will you name an example in which 

What is the nominative to is required? there is part of a sentence used as the 

626-1. Rule? Note XIII. object of a verb? 627. Remark 2. 

Will you now parse the remaining ex- "To see the sun is pleasant." Will 

ercises under this rule ? you parse -pleasant ? to see ? the ? sun ? is ? 

" Boys love to play." What is the oh- Will you now parse the remaining ex- 

ject of love? 627. Remark 2. ercises under Note XIV. 

9* 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LIX. 

630. In the phrase, " John and James are here," the sense is, that " John 
and James are both here ;" two persons are therefore spoken of, which ren- 
ders it necessary to use the plural verb are, to agree with two nouns which 
individually are singular : hence, 

RULS XVIII. 

Two or more nouns or pronouns, of the singular number, 
connected together by and, either expressed or under- 
stood, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns, agreeing 
with them in the plural number, 

631. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

* William and James run." " John and Joseph can get their 
14 Mary and Harriet study, and they lessons." 

will therefore excel." "Time and tide wait for no 
"You and I are in fault." man." 

" John and Thomas say they intend " My coat and pantaloons were 

to study Latin." made by Watson." 

Remarks. — William is one of the nominatives to the verb run. James is 
in the nominative case to the verb run, and is connected with the noun Wil- 
liam, by Rule XL Run agrees with William and James, by Rule XVIII. 

632. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

" Mary and her cousin has come." " The farmer and his son is in 
" You and I makes progress in our town." 

studies." " Susan and her sister is deceitful." 

" Life and health is both uncer- " William and John both writes a 

tain." good hand." 

Remarks. — For has come, we should read have come, that the verb may be 
plural, when it has two nominatives connected by and, according to Rule 
XVIII. 

Exception 1. — When and connects two or more nouns in the singular, 
which refer to the same person or thing, trie verb must be singular ; as, 
" Pliny the philosopher and naturalist has greatly enriched science." 

633. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

" That superficial scholar and " In that house live a great arid 

critic have given new evi- distinguished scholar and states- 

dence of his misguided judg- man." 

ment." " Mr. Cooper, the sailor and novel- 

" There go a benevolent man and ist, visit La Fayette, the patriot 

scholar." and philanthropist." 

LIX. When I say, " John and James Will you parse the succeeding exer- 

are here," of how many persons do I eises ? 

speak? " Pliny the philosopher and naturalist 

Should we, then, use is or are ? 630. has greatly enriched science." Why 

What is the rule for are? XVIII. should we use has, in this sentence, in- 

Will you now parse the exercises un- stead of have? Exception 1. 

der Rule XVIII. ? "That superficial scholar and critic 

" William and James run." Will you have given." Why is have given incor» 

parse William in full? and? James? rect ? Exception 1. 

run ? What is the rule for has come ? Excep. 

Will you parse the next exercises ? tion 1. 

"Mary and her cousin has come."— Will you correct and parse the remain* 

Why is this incorrect ? 632. ing exercises ? 



EXERCISES. 103 

Exception 2. — When two or more nouns in the singular, connected by and, 
have each or every joined with them, the verb must be in the singular number ; 
as, "Every person, every house, and every blade of grass, was destroyed." 

634. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

u Every man, and every woman, " Each man and each woman, were 

and every child, were taken." particularly alluded to in the 

* Every tree, stick and twig, were report of the affair/' 
consumed." 

Remark. — Were, in the first of these examples, should be changed for waSj 
because reference is had to each person, individually considered, which, in re- 
gpect to the verb, is the same in effect as if one person only was spoken o£ 

Note XV. — Every is sometimes associated with a plural 

2iOun, in which case the verb must be singular ; as, " Every 

hundred years constitutes a century." 

635. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 

ei Every twenty-four hours afford to " Every four years add another day 
us the vicissitudes of day and to the ordinary number of days 

night." in a year. 

Remark. — Afford, in the example above, is a violation of the note : it should 
be affords, in the singular number. The reason of this is, that "every twenty- 
four hours," signifies a single period of time, and is, therefore, in reality sin- 
gular. 

Note XVI. — A verb in the plural will agree with a col- 
lective noun in the singular, when a part only of the indi- 
viduals are meant ; as, " The council were divided in their 
sentiments." When the noun expresses the idea of unity, the 
verb should be singular ; as, " The council was composed 
wholly of farmers." 

Remarks. — In the first of the foregoing examples, we use the plural verb 
were divided, because we refer to the individuals composing the council ,• 
but if no allusion of this sort had been made, and we had spoken of it as 
one entire body, we should have used the singular verb, according to the 
common rule ; as, " The council is composed wholly of farmers." 

We apply to council, in the first example, Note XVI. ; to were divided, 
the same note ; and to council, and was composed in the second example, 
Rules VI. and VII. 

636. EXERCISES 'iN SYNTAX. 

" The council were divided in their u My people do not consider." 

sentiments." "The multitude eagerly pursue 

U A part of the men were mur- pleasure as their chief good." 

dered." 

In the first example, under Exception " The council were divided." Why 

2, why use was destroyed, rather than not was? Note XVI. Remarks. Rule? 

were destroyed? Exception 2. Note XVI. 

Will you parse the remaining exercises When is a noun called collective? 31)6, 
under this exception, after having cor- In what circumstances would it he 

rected them ? proper to use the singular verb? Note 

"Every twenty-four hours afford to XVI. Give an example, 
us.'* What does "every twenty-four How do you parse council? Note XV I. 

hours" signify, one period of time, or Remarks. Were divided? Note XVI. 

more ? What is wrong, then ? Why ? Remarks. Was composed, in the second 

635. Remark. example ? Note XVI. 

What is the rule for this? Note XV. Will you now parse and correct the 

Will you correct and p«rse the other remaining exercises under this note ? 
example ? 



104 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



637. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 



" My people doth not consider." 
" The people rejoices in that which 

should give it sorrow." 
"The multitude rushes to certain 

destruction." 



The committee was divided in 
their sentiments, and has re- 
ferred the business to a general 
meeting." 



LX. 

638. Negative means denying ; and affirmative, asserting oi declaring 
positively. A sentence in which something is denied is a negative one, and 
a sentence in which something is affirmed or positively asserted, is an affirm- 
ative one. "Vice degrades us," is an affirmative sentence, and "Labor 
does not injure us," is a negative one. Not, nothing, none at all, by no 
means, no, in no wise, neither, no, none, $c, are negative terms. 

The phrase, "I have nothing," has one negative, and means, " I have 
not any thing." The phrase, "I have not nothing," cannot mean the same 
as " 1 have nothing," but must mean, on the contrary, " I have something." 
This last, you perceive, is an affirmative sentence, and signifies the same as 
the foregoing one, "I have not nothing." Two negatives, therefore, are 
equal to an affirmative. Hence, 



HULE XIX. 

Two negatives in the same sentence^ are equivalent to 

an affirmative, 

639. SENTENCES TO BE PARSED AND CORRECTED. 



" He spends all the day in idleness, 

and I cannot prevail on him to 

do nothing." 
" He cannot get no employment in 

town." 
" I cannot by no means consent." 
"I shall not take no interest in the 

affair." 
" I never studied no grammar." 

Remarks. — For nothing, in the above examples, read anything, in accord- 
ance with Rule XIX. 



"Be (1.) honest, nor (2.) take (3.) 
no shape nor semblance of dis- 
guise." 

" He is so (4.) indolent, that he will 
not do nothing." 

" I did not say nothing." 

" He cannot do nothing acceptable 
to John." 



LX. What is the meaning of negative ? 
638. affirmative? 638. 

What is a negative sentence ? 638. 
An affirmative one? 638. Give an ex- 
ample of each. 

Will you name a few negative terms? 
638. 

How many negatives has the phrase 
* I have nothing," and what does it 
mean? 638. 

Meaning of "I have not nothing"? 
638. 

How many negatives has it ? 

What kind of a sentence is " I have 
something"? 638. 



What is "T have not nothing" equal 
to in expression ? 638. 

What, then, can we say of two nega- 
tives ? Rule XIX. 

Will vou next take the exercises under 
Rule XIX? 

What is a noun ? 4. article ? 350. 
adjective? 363. pronoun? 381. verh? 
438. participle? 498. advert)? 588. 
preposition? 505. conjunction? 602. 
interjection ? 607. common noun ? 301. 
proper noun ? 302. definite article ? 80. 
indefinite article ? 83. 

How many properties in grammar have 
nouns? 308. How many have verbs?* 



(1.) be agrees with thou or you understood, by Rule VII. 
(2.) For nor } read and. 

(3.) Take is in the imperative mood, and agrees with thou or you understood, and is therefore connected to 2>% 
according to Rule XI. 
(4.) Adverb. 
* Mood, tense, number, and person. 



EXERCISES. 



105 



640 



PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN SYNTAX, 



Deep rivers move with silent ma- 
jesty ; but small brooks are 
noisy." 

Deeds are fruits; words are but 
leaves." 

It is a bad horse indeed that will 
not carry his own provender." 

The hog never looks up to him 
who threshes down the acorns." 

Add not trouble to the grief- 
worn heart." 

If the counsel be good, it is no 
matter who gives it." 

By others' faults wise men correct 
their own." 

When the world says you are 
wise and good, ask yourself if 
it be true." 

Sin and misery are constant com- 
panions." 



" Power discovers the disposition of 

man." 
"Quarrels are easily begun, but 

with difficulty ended." 
" Force without forecast is of little 

worth." 
" Rome was not built in one day w 
" In youth and strength think of 

old age and weakness." 
" All are not saints who go to 

church." 
"To say well is good, but to do 

well is better." 
" No fear should deter us from 

doing good." 
"Pride, perceiving Humility hon- 
orable, often borrows her 

cloak." 
" Say what is well, but do what is 

better." 



641. 



SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 



Will you compose one sentence describing the business of an instruct 
ter? One, the business of a dector? One, the business of a lawyer? One, 
of a dentist ? One, of a surgeon ? One, of a farmer ? One, of a black- 
smith ? One, of a miller ? One, of a merchant ? One, of a grocer ? One, 
of an apothecary ? One, of a legislator ? One, of a judge ? One, of a 
colonel ? One, of a captain ? One, of a general ? One, of an agent in a 
factory ? One, of the directors of a bank ? 



LXI. 

642. When I say, "He taught me grammar," I mean, "He taught 
grammar to me:" grammar, then, is the object of the verb, and me is 
governed by the preposition to, understood. In the first example, we have 
two objective cases after the verb taught ; and since there are many instan- 
ces like the preceding, in which transitive verbs are followed by two objec- 
tive cases — hence the following, 



How many participles are there?* 
What are they ? 500, 502, 504. 

When is a verb active? 439. 

When transitive ? 440. When intran- 
iitite? 441. How may it be known? 
154. 

Will you decline I? thou? he? she? 
it? 127. 

Of what person is I? my? us? their? 
you? 127. 

What is mood? 451. the indicative? 
452. potential ? 453. subjunctive? 456. 
infinitive? 479. imperative? 472. How 
many tenses has the indicative? 525. 
subjunctive? 52G. potential? 527. in- 
finitive ? 528. imperative ? 529. What 



are the signs of the present tense? 519. 
imperfect? 520. perfect? 521. pluper. 
feet? 522. first future? 523. second fu- 
ture? 524. 

Will you now parse the promiscuous 
exercises ? 

Will you next take the sentences to ha 
written ? 

LXI. " He taiiffht me grammar." 
What does this mean ? 642. What, then, 
is the object of the verb, and by what is 
grammar governed ? 642. By what is mi 
governed ? 642. 

How many objective cases, then, fol- 
low the verb taught ? 642. 



♦ Three. 



106 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 
RULE XX. 



Two objective cases, the one of a person, and the other 
of a thing, may follow transitive verbs, of asking, 
teaching, giving, &c. ; a preposition being under- 
stood. 

" He taught me grammar." 

Remark 1. — In the foregoing example, me and grammar are both govern- 
ed by taught, according to Rule XX. 



643. 



EXAMPLES IN SYNTAX. 



" Pie taught me grammar." 

" William asked me some ques- 
tions." 

"My mother wrote me a precious 
letter in the month of May." 

"They allowed him his seat in 
Congress." 

"John gave me a detailed account 
of the whole transaction." 



"My instructor gave me a valu- 
able book, for my attention to 
study." 

" She forbade him the presence of 
the emperor." 

"The French denied him the 
privilege of an American citi- 
zen." 



LXII. 

644. The natural construction of the passi e voice requires the object of 
the active verb to become the nominative to the passive verb; as, "He 
taught me grammar ;" " Grammar was taught me." In some few instan- 
ces, just the reverse takes place; as, "I was taught grammar;" here the 
object, grammar, is placed after the verb : we therefore derive the following 

HULE XXI. 

4n objective case may follow passive verbs of asking, 
teaching, and some others ; as, " I was taught gram- 
mar." 

#Cr Apply to J Rule VI. ; to was taught, Rule VII. ; to grammar, Rule 



645. 



EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 



John taught me music." " I was taught grammar." 

Music was taught me by John." " The presence of the emperor was 
A question was asked me." forbidden Theresa." 

Theresa was forbidden the pre- " Reading is taught in almost every 
sence of the emperor." school." 



What rule is given for cases of this 
inscription? XX. 

By what are me and grammar govern- 
ed ? 642. Remark 1. 

Will you next parse the exercises un- 
der Rule XX.? 

LXII. What is the natural construc- 
tion of the passive voice in reference to 



the ohject ? 644. Give an example. 644. 
Give an example where the reverse takes 
place. 644. 

Where is the object placed ? 644. 

" I was taught grammar." Will you 
parse I? was taught? grammar? 

Will you next take the exercises tin- 
der Rule XXI. ? 



EXERCISES. 107 



LXIII. 

646. When 1 say, " He came home last May," the sense is, when fully 
expresred, "He came to his home in last May." " John continued four 
years at the university ;" that is, " during four years." " The horse ran a 
mile ;" that is, " over the space of a mile." " John went that way ;" that 
is. "over that way." From these facts we derive the following 

RX7Z.S xxn. 

Home, and nouns signifying which way, how far, how 
long, or time when, <^c, are in the objective case ; a 
preposition being understood. 

647. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

" He came home last May." " Susan rides out every day." 

" John continued four years at the " William sleeps comfortably all 

university." night." 

" John went home once a month." " John was absent from home six 
"Charles studies six hours every years." 

day." "James lived six years at Boston, 
11 John rode that way " twelve years at Dedham." 

" He ran a mile." 

Note XVII. — After the words like and unlike, the preposi- 
tion to or unto is frequently understood ; as, " He is like his 
father;" that is, "like to his father." "She is unlike her 
sister ;" that is, " unlike to her sister." 

648. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

" He is like his brother." "John behaves like a man in a vio- 

" William, unlike his father, falsi- lent rage." 

fied his word." " He is unlike any other mortal." 

Note XVIII. — Nouns signifying duration, extension, quan- 
tity, quality or valuation, are in the objective case, without any 
governing word. The following are examples : 

4 The Atlantic ocean is three thou- " The cart weighs fifteen hundred 

sand miles (1.) wide." pounds." 

v< William's knife is worth eighteen " The wall which separates China 

pence, or twenty-five cents." from Tartary, commonly called 

" For that article, which is richly the great Chinese wall, is fifteen 

worth a dollar, (2.) we cannot hundred miles long, and from 

always get fifty cents." twenty to thirty feet in height" 
M The chasm is fifty feet broad." 

Remarks. — (1.) The noun miles is governed according to Note XVIIL 
£.) Apply Note XVIIL 

LXIII. " He came home last May." Will you parse the exercises under 

What does this mean, when more fully Rule XXII? 

expressed? 64(5. Will you parse home? What is the note respecting like and 

May? unlike? XVI I. 

11 John continued four years at the uni- " He is like his father." How is fathe* 

versity." "The horse ran a mile." What parsed? Note XVII. 

do these sentences mean, when fully ex- Will you next take the remaining ax 

pressed ? ercises under Note XVI1 1 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note XIX. — The conjunction as, after such, r.iary and 
same, is generally considered a relative pronoun ; as in the 
following examples : 

M He receives into his school as " He took such books as pleased 

many scholars as (1.) apply." him." 

"Our instructed who is serupu- "He exhibited the same course 

lously exact in the execution of conduct as was once before 

of justice, punishes severely exhibited on the same occa* 

all such as disobey his com- sion." 

mands." 

Remarks. — (1.) As is a conjunction, used here as a relative, according to 
ftie Note preceding ; of the third person plural, masculine gender, agreeing 
with scholars, according to Rule V. ; and in the nominative case to apply, 
according to Rule VI. 

Note XX. — The conjunction than seems to have the force 

of a preposition before the relative whom, in a sentence where 

a comparison is made ; as follows : 

"Which, when Beelzebub per- "Alfred, than whom, Solomon ex- 

ceived, than whom, (1.) Satan cepted, a wiser king never 

(2.) excepted, (3.) none higher reigned, was one of the earliest 

sat." English kings." 

Remarks. — (1.) Whom is governed by the conjunction than, used as a pre- 
position, according to Note XX.— (2.) Apply Rule XVII. — (3.) Participle 
agreeing with Satan, by Rule XIII. — It is somewhat remarkable, that if, 
in the last two examples, the personal pronoun he were substituted for 
whom, it would be in the nominative case ; as, "A wiser king never reigned 
than he;" that is, " than he was." 

649. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Will you compose a sentence having a proper example under Rule 
I.? II.? III.? IV.? V.? VI.? VII.? VIII. ? IX.? X.? XL? XII.? 
XIII. ? XIV.? XV.? XVI.? XVII.? XVIII.? XIX.? XX.? XXL? 
XXII. ? 

Will you construct a sentence descriptive of the calamities arising from 
Jire ? one, on losses by sea ? one, on the fatal effects of lightning ? one, 
on the character of our forefathers ? one, on each of the seasons ? one, on 
the effects of rain ? one, on the manner of making hay ? one, on the ap- 
pearance of soldiers when training? one, on the celebration of the fourth 
of July ? one, on the utility of Jire ? one, on the utility of wood ? one, on 
the usefulness of the cow? one, on fruit ? 

When is the conjunction as used as a What does English grammar teach 1 

relative pronoun ? Note XIX. 288. How many parts of speech ars 

Will you parse as, in the phrase " He there in English? 299. 
received into his school as many scholars What does orthography include ? 291. 
as applied" ? Note XIX. What does it teach us ? 291. 

Will you parse the remaining exercises What does etymology teach ? 293. 
onder this Note ? What are proper nouns ? 302. 

When is than considered a preposition ? What are common nouns ? 301. 
Note XX. Give an example! In what manner may proper names be 

What would be the effect of using the used as common names ? 303. 
personal pronoun instead of the relative? How may common names be used U. 

Observation under Note XX. Give an represent individuals? 304. 
example. What is a collective noun? 306. 

Will you now take the sentences to be What four things belong to nouns? 308, 
parsed and written ? What is gender? 312. Masculina 

How many articles are there? 351. gender? 314. Feminine gender? 315 

Will you name them ? 351, When do Common gender? 316. Neuter gender! 

*e use a? 87, 357. When an ? 86. 317. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 1<* 

LXIV OF WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS 

OF SPEECH. 

650. That is a relative, 

When who or which may be substituted for it, and make sense ; a&; 
u The man that [who] arrived yesterday." 

651. That is a demonstrative pronoun, 

When it is joined with a noun to point it out ; as, " That man is intelli- 
gent. ' 

652 That is a conjunction, 

In all cases when it is neither a relative nor a demonstrative pronoun ; 
as, "He studies that he may learn." 

653. But is a preposition, 

When it has the sense of except; as, " All but [except] John 
tame." 

654. But is an adverb, 

When it has the sense of only ; as, " This is but [only] doing our 
duty." 

655. But is a conjunction, 

In all cases when it is neither an adverb nor preposition ; as, " He called, 
but I refused to go." 

656. As is a relative, 

When it follows many, such, or same; as, "Let such as hear take 
heed." 

657 As is an adverb, 

When it is joined to an adverb or adjective in the sense ot so ; as, " He 
does as well as he can." 

658. As is a conjunction, 

In all cases except when it is an adverb or relative ; as, " He did as I 
directed him." 

659. Either is a conjunction, 

When it corresponds to or ; as, " Either the one or the other." 

669. Either is a distributive pronoun, 

When it means, "one of the two;" as, "You can take either 
road." 

661 Both is a conjunction, 

When it is followed by and ; as, " We assisted mm both for his sake 
and our own." 

How may nouns, naturally neuter, be noun? 651. Give an example. When a 

converted into the masculine or feminine conjunction? 652. Give an example, 

gender? 318. When is but a preposition ? 653. Give 

What is the feminine corresponding to an example. When an adverb? 654. 

bachelor? 319. How is the feminine here G,ve an example. When a conjunction? 

formed' 1 655. Give an example. 

twin mn e r, Q u th n r an ,ir,i ne , „«,.,.« When is as a rel a ti ve ? 656. Give an 

Will you spell the feminine corre- , hju^ n „ „j„„»ki rc~ r>;.,« 

-^.jj-! t _ »„!,? /,,„,, * l~_ .«._«_- 9 qio example. When an adverb? 65/. Give 

3£^£££&.*S£3f ? 319 ' « «-* •• ™« a «*-«^ ? 658 - 

Give an example. 

Will ycu snell the feminine corre- When is either a conjunction? 659. 

spon-lin? to baron f poet? pHestf Jew? Give an example. When a distributive 

votary? tutor? hero? dukel instructor? pronoun ? 660. Give an example. 

319 When is both a conjunction ? 661. Give 

LXIV. When i* that a relative ? 650. an example. When an adjective pro- 
Give an example- A demonstrative pro- noun ? 662. Give an example. 

10 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

662. Both is an adjective pronoun, 

When it means, " the two ;" as, " Both the men are guilty." 

663. Yet is a conjunction, 

When it follows though; as, "Though he reproves me, yet I esteem 
him." In all other cases, it is an adverb; as, "That event has yet ta 
come." 

664. For is a conjunction, 

When it means the same as because ; as, " He trusted him, for he knew 
that he would not deceive him." 

665. For is a preposition, 

In all instances except when it is a conjunction; as, "He works fa* 

me." 

666. What is a compound relative, 

When it stands for, " that which ;" as, "I will take what [that which} 
you send me." 

667. What is an interrogative relative pronoun, 
When used in asking questions ; as, " What do you want ?" 

668. What is an adjective pronoun, 

When joined with a noun ; as, " What strange things he said !" 

669. What is a compound adjective pronoun, 

When joined with nouns, and has the sense of two or more words ; as, 
" In what manner he succeeded, is unknown to me ;" that is, " The man- 
ner in which he succeeded, is unknown to me." 

670. What is an interjection, 

When used to express wonder ; as, " What ! take my money ?" 

671. Then is a conjunction, 

When it has the sense of therefore ; as, " If he has commanded it, then 
1 must obey." 

672. Then is an adverb, 

When it refers to time ; as, " Did you hear it thunaer then ?" 

673. Much is a noun, 

When it stands for quantity ; as, " Where much is given, much will be 
required." 

674. Much is an adjective, 

When it is joined to nouns ; as, " Much labour fatigues us. 

675. Much is an adverb, 

When it qualifies the same parts of speech that the adverb does ; as, 
" Thou art much mightier than I." 

676. More is a noun, 

When it implies quantity; as, "The more we have, the more we 
want." 

When is yet a conjunction ? 663. Give When an interjection? 670. Give a* 
an example. When an adverb? 663. example. 

Gi wV a11 ^ x ^ m P le * - ,. - »„. n . When is then a conjunction ? 671. Give 

When is/or a conjunction 7 664 .Give an example . When an adverb? 672. 

an example. When a preposition ? 665. Gjye an <£ amp i e . 

Give an example. „„ . F , „ BM1 _,. 

When is what a compound relative? When is much a noun? 673 Givean 

666. Give an example. When an inter- example. When an adjective ? 6,4. Give 

rogative relative pronoun ? 667. Give an an example. When an adverb ? 675. 

example. When an adjective pronoun? Give an example. 

668. Give an example. When a com- When is more a noun ? 676. Give an 

pound pronoun ? 669. Give an example, example. 



a>77 Tt 



EXERCISES. 
677. More and most are adjectives, 



111 



When they qualify a noun; as, "The more joy I have, the more 
sorrow I expect/' "Most men are mistaken in their pursuit of hap- 
piness." 

678. More and most are adverbs, 

When used in comparison; as, "This boy is more obedient than that;" 
" The soil of Cuba is most fertile." 



679. PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 



1 



They perfume their garments. 

A perfume is a sweet odor." 

They rise early in the morn- 
ing." 

A rise sometimes signifies the be- 
ginning." 

Rufus speaks the language of 
truth." 

James performed his part well." 

A well is a fountain of water." 

A well man is one who enjoys his 
health." 

We frequently walk in the gar- 
den." 

The Jews fast often." 

He walks very fast." 

The refuse signifies the worthless 
remains." 

Desert not a friend." 

Joseph's brethren came and bowed 
down before him." 

William went after his slate." 



"His elder brethren came before 
Benjamin did." 

" John left after William came." 

" Evil communications corrupt good 
manners." 

" Corrupt conversation is very fool- 
ish." 

44 A walk in the fields in the sum. 
mer season is delightful." 

"A true fast is abstaining from 
iniquity." 

44 Sin is a moral evil, and the cause 
of natural evils." 

" Protest not rashly, lest thou have 
to repent of it." 

44 A protest is a solemn declaration 
against a thing." 

44 Do nothing rashly, lest thou pre- 
cipitate thyself into inextricable 
difficulty." 

44 Hasty promises are seldom kept." 



44 The man that I saw, was ex- 
ecuted." 

*' That man that you met yesterday 
in the street, was taken and 
sent to Boston, that he might 
have an impartial trial." 

44 We assisted him both for your 
sake and our own." 



44 Did you hear the report of the 

cannon then ?" 
44 Where much is given, mush will 

be required." 
44 Future time is yet to come." 
44 He trusted him, for he knew 

that he would not deceive 

him." 



When are more and most adjectives ? 
677. Give examples of each. When ad- 
verbs? 678. Give examples of each. 

What is number? 5. What does the 
singular number denote? 8. What the 
plural? 10. 

What nonns have the singular form 
only? 324. What the plural ? 325. What 
are the same in both numbers? 326. 

How is the plural number of nouns 
generally formed ? 327. 

When nouns end in ck, sh, &c, how do 
thev form the plural ? 328. 

How do those ending in for fa? 329. 

How is the plural formed, when the 
singular ends in ?/, with no other vowel 
in the same syllable ? 330. 

What is case ? 333. The nominative 
case? 335. Possessive case? 337 How 



formed ? 338. How formed when the sin. 
gular ends in ss? 341. 

What does the objective case express ? 
343. 

Will vou decline man? book? 345. 
chair ? 345. 

Will you parse the promiscuous exer- 
cises ? 

What is an adjective? 363. What 
does the positive state express? 365. 
Comparative? 366. Superlative? 367. 
How is the comparative formed in mono- 
syllables? 369. How in more syllables 
than one? 370. 

How do you compare the following ad 
jecti ves ? — good ? bad ? wise ? little 1 
small? virtuous? many? old? 115. 

When does an adjective become a noun 
in parsing? 378. 



(12 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



" Both the men are guilty." 

" Although he reproves me, yet I 

esteem him." 
" All but John came." 
11 This is but doing our duty." 
"He called me, but I refused to 

go." 
" Let such as hear take heed." 
" He did as I directed him." 
M You may take either the one or 

the other." 
u Either road will conduct you to 

the right place." 
w If he has commanded it, then I 

must obey." 



" He works for me." 
* He refused what was sent him. w 
" What strange things he saw !" 
"In what manner he succeeded is 

unknown to me." 
" What ! will you take my life f 
" The more we have, the more we 

want." 
"The more joy I have, the more 

sorrow I expect." 
" The most dutiful children are the 

happiest children." 
" Much labor fatigues me." 
"Thou art much mightier than I 

am." 



3. 



" Susan is determined to learn." 

" By framing excuses he prolonged 
his stay." 

"The man who is faithfully at- 
tached to religion may be relied 
on with confidence." 

* James, do visit me." 



" Virtue and vice are opposites." 
" When John's father asked him 
that question, he heard him, but 
refused to answer him." 
" The wall is sixty feet high." 
" To meet our friends after a long 
absence affords us much joy." 



LXV. CONTRACTIONS. 



Of the Auxiliary Have, also of Had. 

" I 've satisfied myself." 
" They 'd determined to let him 
go." 



680. 

" They 've forsaken him." 

" I 'd gone when you came." 

" They 'd just returned from town." 



681. 



O/Will and Would. 



" I ^W finish my work firr>t." 
" They 'd sing songs till midnight, 
if they were urged." 



"He is still determined that he'll 

not forbear." 
" He '11 at last mind me." 



Will you name a few adjectives which 
have in themselves a superlative signifi- 
cation ? 374. 

What is a pronoun ? 381. A personal 
pronoun ? 382. Why called personal ? 
S82. 

How many persons have pronouns in 
each number? 383. How many num- 
bers? 384. 

To which of the pronouns is gender ap- 
plied? 382. 

How many cases have pronouns? 384, 

Will vou decline I? thou? he? she? 
it 7 127.* 

What kind of a pronoun is myself? 386. 
How formed ? 386. 

What is a relative pronoun? 409. 
Why called relative ? 408. 

What is said of the relative what? 429. 

How ought who to be applied ? 412. 



How which? 413. How may that be 
used? 415. 

When are pronouns called interroga- 
tive? 431 

What are adjective pronouns? 390. 
How many kinds of adjective pronouns 
are there ? 391. 

Which are the demonstrative? 398. 
Why so called? 398. The distributive? 
393. Why so called? 393. The indenM 
nite ? 402. Why so called ? 401. 

To what do this and that refer ? 400. 

Will you decline one? 404. other ? 
403 

What is the rule by which pronouns 
agree with their antecedents? V. 

Which words in sentences are antece- 
dents? 420. 

What are subsequents? 431. 

Will you parse the exercises marked 2? 



I 

682. 



CONTRACTIONS 
Of Am and Is. 



113 



•* That man's rich." u 'T is strange that she will not 

•* 'T is true slie 's dead." regard the kind assistance of 

54 1 'm sorry that you have misspent her friend." 
your time." 



683. 



Of Cannot and Will not. 



" He can't endure such afflictions." " He won't disobey me." 
** You can't be absent at such " You won't mistake the direc^ 
times." tion." 

684. Omissions of the Principal Verb after an Interrogative 

Sentence. 

"Who will assist me?" "John" "What will make me respectable 
[will assist me]. and happy ?" " Virtue." 

" What sent our forefathers to this " Who taught him grammar ?" 
country?" " The love of liberty." " Mr. Williams." 

685. Omissions of the Principal Verb after an Auxiliary. 

* Stephen will go if John will" " He received me in the same man- 
[go] . ner that I would you." 

" Susan shall walk, but John shall " I will do it as soon as I can." 

not." " The work is not completed, but 

" I have recited; have you ?" soon will be." 

686. Omissions of the Principal Verb after Than and As. 

"Thomas is a better scholar than " Johnson is richer than James." 

William" [is]. " Susan is not so beaatiful as 

•He was more beloved than Cin- Mary." 

thia, but not so much ad- " She is more playful than her 

mired." brother." 



687. Omissions of the Verb To be. 

Sweet the pleasure, rich the trea- " Delightful task, to rear the tender 

sure." 
A child of freedom thou." 
Sweet the music of birds." 
Dear the schoolboy's sport." 



thought, 

To teach the young idea how tc 
shoot." 



What is a verb? 438. 

What is an active verb? 439. 

When is an active verb transitive? 
440. When intransitive ? 441. 

What is a passive verb? 444. How 
formed ? 510. 

How may a transitive verb be known ? 
XiA. 

How an intransitive? 154. 

What is a neuter verb? 450. 

Will you next take the exercises mark- 
ed 3? 

What belong to verbs ?* 

How many numbers have they ? How 
many persons?! 

What is mood? 451. How many are 
there ? 481. Will you name them ? 

What is the indicative mood used for? 
452. The potential? 453. The impera- 



tive ? 472. Subjunctive? 456. Infini- 
tive? 479. 

What are participles? 498. How may 
the participles in ing be distinguished 
from other words of like termination ? 
500. 

How many, and which are the partici- 
ples ?| What does the present express ? 
500. Perfect? 502. Compound perfect? 
504. 

LXV. Will you next parse the con- 
tractions? 680. 

What is tense ? 494. What is the pre- 
sent used for? 482. The perfect? Imper. 
feet? 488. Pluperfect? 491. First fu- 
ture? 492. Second future? 493. 

Under what circumstances do we use 
the present tense to denote the relative 
time of a future action ? 484. 



* Mood, tense, number <uid person. 

H 



t Three. 



J Three • 

10* 



the present, perftc', aud cexepound perfect. 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

688. Omissions of May, Might, Could, Would, and Should 

" Live lon^ and be happy." " He might not weep, nor laugh, 

" Who will entreat the Lord that he nor sing." 

spare our lives ?" " Should I forgive you, and allow 

" I could not think, nor speak, nor you to depart, you would not 

hear." reform." 

689. Omissions of the Conjunction before the Verb in the Sub- 

junctive Mood. 

^ If he will repent and reform, I " Had I improved my time as I 

j will assist him." ought to have done, I should 

* Ur/iess good order be restored, and have been well qualified for 
J the former officers be re-elected, business." 

there will be an end to the ad- " Were there no alternative, I would 
ministration of justice." not do that." 

690. Omissions of For after Verb, implying the idea of serving. 

" Make me a pen." " Bring me some water." 

w Order me a carriage." " Purchase him a knife." 

691. Omissions of the Interjection. 

14 Sweet child ! lovely child ! thy " Thou Preserver and Creator of all 

parents are no more." mankind." 

" Sweet blossom ! precious to my " My beloved Ulrica ! hast thou, too, 

heart." forgotten me ?" 

692. Omissions of the Relative. 

* Several men are there come from " I trust that he I desire to see so 

Europe." much, will speedily return." 



LXVI. INVERTED SENTENCES. 

693. The Nominative Case placed after the Verb. 

** Smack went the whip, round went guished for his learning and 

the wheels ; politeness." 

Were ever folks so glad ?" " And in soft ringlets waved hei 

* There goes a man alike distin* golden hair." 

In what sort of descriptions do we use Will you now parse the omissions 1 

the present for the past tense ? 486. 684, &c. 

What is the conjugation of a verb? 531. How is the passive verb formed ? 510, 

What is the conjugation of an active Will you decline love in the indicative 

verb styled ? 532. A passive verb ? 532. present, passive ? and the verb to be in tha 

How many tenses has the indicative? imperfect? Perfect? Pluperfect? First 

525. Potential ? 527. Subjunctive ? 526. future ? Second future ? Present poten- 

Imperative? 529. Infinitive? 528. tial? Imperfect? Perfect? Pluperfect? 

What is the sign of the present indica- Present subjunctive, common form ? lm- 

tive? 519. The imperfect? 520. Per- perfect? Perfect? Pluperfect? First fu- 

feet ? 521. Pluperfect ? 522. First fu- ture ? Second future ? 

ture? 523. Second future? 524. The In what voice, mood, tense, number and 

potential mood? 515. Infinitive ? 517. person, is, " I love?'' "We love ?" " They 

Subjunctive 1 516. How many persons are loved ?" " You are ?" " I did learn ?" 

has the imperative? 518. How many "John was instructed?" "He was?* 1 

tenses? 529. How many forms has the "They have returned?" "Have they 

subjunctive mood ? 461. In what do they gone?" "They have been?" "I had 

differ? 461 had?" "They had been distinguished?* 



SENTENCES TRANSPOSED, 115 

694. The Objective Case before the Verb. 

u Tyrants no more their savage na- "Me glory summons to the martial 

ture kept, scene." 

And foes to virtue wondered how " The rolls of fame I will not now 

they wept." • explore." 

695. SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN. 

Will you compose a sentence exemplifying Rule VIII. ? One, Rule 
IX.? X.? XL? XII.? XIII. ? XIV.? Will you compose a'sentence on 
the use of the dog ? One, on the clouds ? One, on night ? One, on wind ? 
One, on snow? One, on hail ? One, on ice? One, on skating? One, on 
fishing ? One, on courage ? One, on cowardice ? One, on filial duty 1 
One, on indolence ? One, on schools ? 

696. SENTENCES TRANSPOSED. 
" Here rests his head upon the lap of earth, 

A youth, to fortune and to fame unknown." 

Transposed. 

A youth, unknown to fortune and to fame, rests here his head upon 
the lap of earth." 

" When, young, life's journey I began, 

The glittering prospect charmed my eyes ; 
I saw along the extended plain, 

Joy after joy successive rise : 
But soon I found 't was all a dream, 

And learned the fond pursuit to shun, 
Where few can reach the purposed aim, 

And thousands daily are undone." 

Transposed. 

" I began life's journey when young, and the glittering prospect 
charmed my eyes ; I saw joy after joy successive rise, along the ex- 
tended plain : but soon I found it was all a dream ; and learned to shun 
the fond pursuit, where few can reach the purposed aim, and thousands 
are daily undone." 

" Needful austerities our wills restrain, 
As thorns fence in the tender plant from harm." 

Transposed. 

" Needful austerities restrain our wills, as thorns fence in the tender 
planit from harm." 

"Thou hadst been"? "You shall be Will you give the synopis of desire in 

taught"? "Shall I be punished"? "He the active voice, with the participles? 

shall have been" ? Of the same in the passive? Of do in the 

LXVI. Will you parse the inverted active? In the passive? 
sentences? 693, &c. When is a verb called regular? 533. 

In what voice, mood, tense, number and When irregular ? 534. 
person, is " Love thou" ? " I may go" ? Will you repeat the present and imper 

"You maybe regarded"? "You might feet tenses, also the perfect participle, 

be rejoiced"? "She may have been re- of am? see? hear? do? weep? sink? 

fused" ? " We should have been" ? " If swim ? 

I have" ? " If thou have"? " If thou Will you next take the sentences to be 

hast" ? " To have" ? " To have been" ? written ? 

Will you give the synopis of learn, What are auxiliary verbs ? 511. 
through all the moods, tenses, &c, in the How many and which are they ? 512. 
first person, including the participle? What are defective verbs ? 579. 
Learn, in like manner, in the passive? What is an adverb? 588. Why ■« 

The verb to be in the same manner ? called ? 238. 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR/ 

** On some fond breast the parting soul relies, 
Some pious drops the closing eye requires* 
E'en from the tomb the voice of nature cries, 
E'en in our ashes live their wonted fires." 

Transposed. 

" The parting soul relies on some fond breast ; the closing eye requires 
some pious drops ; the voice of nature cries, even from the tomb ; and 
their wonted fires live even in our ashes." 

u From lofty themes, from thoughts that soared on high 
And opened wondrous scenes above the sky, 
My Muse! descend; indulge my fond desire; 
With softer thoughts my melting soul inspire, 
And smooth my numbers to a female's praise ; 
A partial world will listen to my lays, 
While Anna reigns, and sets a female name 
Unrivalled in the glorious lists of fame." 

Transposed. 

" O my Muse ! descend thou from lofty thenes, and from thoughts that 
soared on high, and opened wondrous scenes above the sky ; indulge thou 
my fond desire ; and do thou inspire my melting soul with softer thoughts, 
and smooth my numbers to a female's praise ; a partial world will listen 
to my lays, while Anna reigns, and sets a female name unrivalled in the 
glorious lists of fame." 

In what manner are adverbs compared? What is the rule for the agreement of 

236,234. nouus? XV. Articles? II., III. Ad- 

What are the phrases which do the of- jectives? IV. Pronouns? V. Verbs? 

fice of adverbs called ? 589. VII. Participles ? XIII. Agreement of 

Will you name a few? 589. a verb plural with two nouns singular? 

What is a preposition ? 595. XVIII. Adjective pronouns and numer- 

Will you repeat the list of preposi- als? Note 1. 

tions ? 247. What is the rule by which a verb agrees 

What is a conjunction ? 602. Con. with a noun of multitude, or collective 

junction copulative ? 265. Why so call- noun ? Note XVI. Rule for the objective 

ed ? 264. Conjunction disjunctive ? 274. case after a transitive verb ? VIII. 

Why so called? 271. What is the rule for the objective case 

Will you repeat the list of copulative after a preposition ? X. After a partici- 

conjunctions? 266. Of disjunctive con- pie? XIV. Rule for the adverb? IX. 

junctions? 275. Rule respecting the interjections Of ohf 

What is an interjectioh ? 607. Why ah! &c. ? Note X. 

bo called? 283. Mention a few? 285. Will you parse the sentences marked 

What is syntax ? 296. What is a sen* transposed ? 
fence ? 252. A simple sentence ? 333. 



GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 



SYNTAX. 

That part of Grammar which treats of the formation and sound 
of the letters, the combination of letters into syllables, and syllables 
into words, is called Orthography. 

That part which treats of the different sorts of words, their vari- 
ous changes and their derivations, is called Etymology. 

That part which treats of the union and right order of words in 
the formation of sentences, is called Syntax. 

Grammar may be considered as consisting of two species, 
Universal and Particular. Universal Grammar explains the 
principles which are common to all languages. Particular 
Grammar applies those principles to a particular language, modi- 
fying them according to the genius of that tongue, and the 
established practice of the best writers and speakers by whom it 
*is used. 

Language, in the proper sense of the word, signifies the expres- 
sion of our ideas, and their various relations, by certain articulate 
sounds, which are used as the signs of those idea* and relations. 
An articulate sound is the sound of the human voice, formed by the 
organs of speech. 

Letters are the representatives of certain articulate sounds, the 
elements of the language. 

The letters of the English Language, called the English Alphabet, 
are twenty -six in number, each of which constitutes the first prin- 
ciple, or least part of a word. 

Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 

A vowel is a letter that can be perfectly sounded by itself. The 
vowels are 0, e, i, o, w, and sometimes w and y. Wand y are con- 
sonants when they begin a word or syllable: but in every other 
situation they are vowels. 

A consonant is a letter that cannot be perfectly sounded without 
the aid of a vowel ; as, 6, d,f, L All letters except the vowels are 
consonants. 

Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels. 
The mutes cannot be sounded at all, without the aid of a vowel. 
Thev are 6, p, t y d, Jc, and c and g hard. 

(117) 



118 ENGLISH GRAMM A R. 

The semi- vowels have an imperfect sound of themselves. They 
are /, I, m, n, r, v, s, z, x, and c and g soft. 

Four of the semi-vowels, namely, /, m, n, r, are called liquids, 
because they readily unite with other consonants, and flow, as it 
were, into their sounds. 

A diphthong is the union of two vowels, pronounced by a single 
impulse of the voice ; as, oi in voice, ou in ounce. 

A triphthong is the union of three vowels, pronounced in like 
manner ; as, eau in beau, lew in view. 

A proper diphthong is that in which both the vowels are sounded; 
as, oi in voice, ou in ounce. 

An improper diphthong has but one of the vowels sounded ; as, ea 
in eagle, oa in boat. 

A Syllable is a sound, either simple or compounded, uttered by 
a single impulse of the voice, and constituting a word or part .of a 
word ; as, a, an, ant. 

A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable; a word of two 
syllables, a Dissyllable; a word of three syllables, a Trisyllable; a 
word of four or more syllables, a Polysyllable. 

Words are articulate sounds, used by common consent as signs of 
our ideas. 

Words are of two sorts, primitive and derivative. 

A primitive word is that which cannot be reduced to a simpler 
word in the language ; as, man, good. 

A derivative word is that which may be reduced to a simpler 
word ; as, manful, goodness. 

The elementary sounds, under their smallest combination, produce 
a syllable ; syllables, properly combined, produce a word ,• words, 
duly combined, produce a sentence; and sentences, properly com- 
bined, produce an oration, or discourse. 

A sentence is an assemblage of words, forming complete sense. 

Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound. 

A simple sentence has in it but one subject, and one finite* verb ; 
as, " Life is short." 

A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences 
connected together ; as, " Life is short, and art is long." 

As sentences themselves are divided into simple and compound, so the 
members of sentences may be divided likewise into simple and compound 
members ; for whole sentences, whether simple or compound, may become 
members of other sentences, by means of some additional connection ; as 
in the following example : '* The ox knoweth his owner, and the ass his 
master's crib ; but Israel doth not know, my people doth not consider." 
This sentence consists of two compounded members, each of which is 
subdivided into two simple members, which are properly called clauses. 

A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, making 
sometimes a part of a sentence, and sometimes a whole sen- 
tence. 

The principal parts of a simple sentence are the subject, the 
attribute, and the object. 

* Finite verbs are those to which number and person appertain. Verbs in the 
infinitive mood have no respect to number and person. 



The 5 



SYNTAX. 119 



The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of; the attribute is the 
thing or action affirmed or denied of it; and the object is the thing 
affected by such action. 

The nominative case denotes the subject ; and usually goes before 
the verb or attribute ; and the word or phrase denoting the object, 
follows the verb ; as, " A wise man governs his passions." Here a 
wise man is the subject; governs, the attribute or thing affirmed ; 
and his passions, the object. 

Syntax principally consists of two parts, Concord and Govern' 
ment. Concord is the agreement which one word has with another 
in gender, number, case, or person. Government is that power 
which one part of speech has over another, in directing its mood, 
tense, or case. 

What is Orthography? Etymology? Syntax? How many kinds of 
grammar are there ? What are they ? What is universal grammar ? Par- 
ticular grammar ? What is language ? What is an articulate sound ? What 
are letters ? What are the letters of the English language called ? What 
does aach constitute ? How are letters divided ? What is a vowel ? Which 
are they ? How many do they make ? When are w and y consonants ? 
when vowels ? What is a consonant ? Give an example. Which letters are 
consonants ? How are the consonants divided ? What is a mute ? Which 
are they ? What is a semi- vowel ? Which are they ? Which of the semi- 
vowels are called liquids, and why ? What is a diphthong ! Give an exam- 
ple. What is a triphthong ? Give an example. What is a proper diphthong ? 
Give an example. What is an improper diphthong? Give an example. 
What is a syllable? monosyllable? dissyllable? trisyllable? polysyllable? 
What are words ? Of how many sorts are they ? What is a primitive word ? 
Give an example. What is a derivative word ? Give an example. What 
does an elementary sound produce ? What do syllables produce ? Words ? 
Sentences ? What is a sentence ? How are sentences divided ? What is a 
simple sentence ? Compound sentence ? Give an example of each. How 
are the members of sentences divided ? Give an example. What is a phrase ? 
What are the principal parts of a simple sentence ? What is the subject ? the 
attribute ? the object? What does the nominative case denote ? and where 
is it usually placed in a sentence ? Give an example. Of how many parts 
does Syntax consist ? What are they ? What is concord ? Government ? 

The right construction of sentences may perhaps be 
best learned by correcting examples of wrong construc- 
tion. Exercises in false syntax for the pupil, assisted by 
rules and notes to parse and correct, will therefore now 
be given. 

The following contain all the notes and observations 
in Murray's large Grammar, together with all his ex- 
ercises in false syntax. 

RULE VII. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE I. 

A verb must agree with its nominative case in number 

and person. 

< The following are a few instances of the violation of this rule : " What 
signifies good opinions, when our practice is bad?" "what signify" 



120 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



" There's two or three of us, who have seen the work;" "there ate."* 
" We may suppose there was more impostors than one;" "there were 
more." " I have considered what have been said on both sides in this con- 
troversy ;" " what has been said." " If thou would be healthy, live tem- 
perately;" " if thou wouldst." "Thou sees how little has been done ;" 
" thou seest." " Though thou cannot do much for the cause, thou may and 
should do something ;" "canst not, mayst, and shouldst." " Full many a 
flower are born to blush unseen ;" "is born." "A conformity of inclina- 
tions and qualities prepare us for friendship ;" "prepares us." "A variety 
of blessings have been conferred upon us;" " has been." " In piety and 
virtue consist the happiness of man;" "consists." "To these precepts 
are subjoined a copious selection of rules and maxims;" " is subjoined." 

" If thou would be healthy, live temperately." Which word is wrong in 
this example ? In what particular, wrong ? Why ? What is the Rule for 
it ? How, then, would you correct the example ? — " There was more equi- 
vocators." Which word is wrong here ? What correction should be made ? 
Why? 

§Cf~ The pupil is first to answer the questions on each Rule or Note, then to 
correct and parse the subsequent exercises. It is suggested to the teacher, that 
the pupils should direct their attention first to the Rules and exercises under 
them, exclusively, omitting the Notes, 6,-c, for a review, when all may be 
taken in course. 



Disappointments sinks the heart 
of man ; but the renewal of 
hope give consolation." 

The smiles that (1.) encourage 
severity of judgment hides ma- 
lice and insincerity." 

He dare not act (2.) contrary (3.) 
to his instructions." 

Fifty pounds of wheat contains 
forty pounds of flour." 

The mechanism of clocks and 
watches were totally unknown 
(4.) a few centuries ago." (5.) 

The number of inhabitants in 
Great Britain and Ireland, do 
not exceed sixteen millions." 

Nothing (6.) but vain and fool- 
ish pursuits (7.) delight some 
persons." 

A variety of pleasing objects 
charm the eye." 

So (8.) much (9.) both (10.) of 
ability and merit (11.) are sel- 
dom (12.) found." 

In the conduct of Parmenio a 
mixture of wisdom and folly 
(11.) were very (8.) conspicu- 
ous." 

He is an author (13.) of more 



credit than Plutarch, (14.) or 
any other (15.) that (11.) writ 
lives too (12.) hastily." 

The inquisitive (16.) and cu- 
rious (11.) is generally talka- 
tive." (17.) 

Great pains has been taken to re- 
concile the parties." 

The sincere (16.) is always es- 
teemed." 

Has the goods been sold to ad- 
vantage ? and did thou embrace 
the proper season ?" 

There is many occasions (6.) in 
life, in which silence and sim- 
plicity (11.) is true wisdom." 

The generous (16.) never re- 
counts minutely the actions 
they have done ; nor the pru- 
dent, (7.) those (15.) they will 
do." 

He need not proceed (2.) in such 
haste." 

The business that (1.) related to 
ecclesiastical meetings, mat- 
ters (11.) and persons, (11.) 
were to be ordered accord- 
ing (18.) to the king's direc- 
tion." 



(1.) See 650. (2.) Apply Rule XII. See 480. (3.) Adjective. (4.) Rule 

XIII. (5.) Ji few centuries ago— an adverbial phrase. 589; or applv Note XVIII., 
(348, to centuries, and Rule IX. to ago (6.) Rule VI. ' (7.) Rule XI. (8.) 230. 
(9.) 673. (10.) 661. (11.) Rule XI. (12.) Adverb. (13.) Rule XV. 613. 

(14.) "Plutarch is." (15.) Note I. 405, and Rule XL (16.) 378. 07.) Rule 
IV. (18.) 247. 



SYNTAX. 



121 



In him were happily blended 
true dignity with softness of 
manners." 

The support of so (1.) many (2 ) 
of his relations, were a heavy 
tax (3.) upon his industry ; 
but thou knows he paid it 
cheerfully." 

What (4.) avails the best senti- 
ments (5.) if persons do not 
live suitably to them ?" 

Not one (6.) of them whom thou 
sees clothed (7.) in purple, are 
completely happy." 

And the fame of this person, 
and of his wonderful actions, 
were diffused (8.) throughout 
the country." 

The variety of the productions 
of genius, like (9.) that (10.) 
of the operations of nature, are 
without limit." 

In vain (11.) our flocks and fields 
increase our store, 



When our abundance makes ui 

wish (12.) for more.'' 
" Thou shalt love thy neighbour 

as (13.) sincerely as (14.) th&a 

loves thyself." 
" Has thou no better reason for cen, 

suring (15.) thy friend and com- 



panion 



?" 



(16.) 



"Thou, who art the Author (17.) 
and Bestower (16.) of life, can 
doubtless restore it also ; but 
whether thou will please to re- 
store it, or not, that thou only 
knows." 

"O thou my voice (18.) inspire, 

Who touched (19.) Isaiah's hallow* 
ed lips with fire." 

"Accept (20.) these grateful tears; 
for thee they flow ; 

For thee, that ever felt (21.) an- 
other's woe." 

" Just to thy word, in every thought 
sincere ; 

Who knew (22.) no wish but what 
the world might hear." 



1. The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is sometimes put as the 
nominative case to the verb ; as, " To see the sun is pleasant ;" " To be 
good is to be happy ;" "A desire to excel others in learning and virtue is 
commendable;" "That warm climates should accelerate the growth of 
the human body, and shorten its duration, is very reasonable to believe ;" 
11 To be temperate in eating and drinking, to use exercise in open air, and 
to preserve the mind free from tumultuous emotions, are the best preser- 
vatives of health." 

" To see the sun are pleasant." Which word is wrong in this example ? 
In what particular, wrong ? What is pleasant ? What, then, is the nomina- 
tive case to is ? Ic there one thing, or more than one, here spoken of, as be- 
ing pleasant ? Why, then, should we use is in preference to are ? What is 
the Rule for is ? (23.) Rule for, " To see," or, " To see the sun ?" (24.) 

ftCT When examples are referred to without being quoted, the teacher may 
read them to the pupil. 

11 To be temperate in eating," &c. How many things are here spoken 
of as being the best preservatives ? Should we, then, use the singular or 
plural verb ? Rule for it ? (25.' 



" To do unto all men we w T ould 
that they, in similar circumstan- 
ces, should do unto us, constitute 
the great principle of virtue." 

"From a fear of the world's cen 



sure, to be ashamed (24.) of the 
practice of precepts, which the 
heart approves and embraces, 
mark a feeble and imperfect 
character." 



(1.) 239. (2.) 378. (3.) Rule XV. C13. (4.) Rule VIII. (5.) Rule VI 

(6.) Note I. 405, and Rule VI. (7.) Rule XIII. (8.) 510. (9.) Rule IV 

(10.) " that variety"— Note I. 405, and Rule X. See Note XVII. 647. (11.) Act 

verbial phrase. (12.) Rule XII. 555. See 480. (13.) Adverb. (14.) Con- 

junction. (15.) Participial noun. (10.) Rule XI. (17.) Rule XV. 613. 

(18.) Rule VIII. (19.) "Who touchedst or didst touch." (-20.) "Accept 

thou" — imp. mood. (21.) " didst feel." (22.) " Who knewest or d dst know* 

(23.) Rule VIL (24.) Note XIII. 626, or, Note 1, this page. (2o.^i Rule XVIII 



11 



i22 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



* The erroneous opinions which 
we form concerning (1.) hap- 
piness and misery gives rise 
to all the mistaken (2.) and 
dangerous passions that em- 
broils our life." 

"To live soberly, righteously, and 
piously, are required of all 
men." 

H That (3.) it is our duty to pro- 
mote the purity of our minds 
and bodies, to be just (4.) and 
kind to our fellow-creatures, 
and to be pious and faithful to 
Him that made us, admit not 
of any doubt in a rational and 
well (5.) informed mind." 

*To be of a pure and humble 
mind, to exercise benevolence 
towards others, to cultivate 
piety towards God, is the sure 
means (6.) of becoming peace- 
ful and happy." 
It is an important truth, that re- 
ligion, vital religion, the re- 
ligion of the heart, are the most 



powerful auxiliaries of reason, 
in waging war with the pas- 
sions, and promoting that sweet 
composure which constitute the 
peace of God." 

"The possession of our senses 
entire, of our limbs uninjured, 
of a sound understanding, of 
friends and companions, are 
often overlooked ; though it 
would be the ultimate wish (6.) 
of many, who, as far as we can 
judge, deserves it as much as 
ourselves." 

44 All (7.) that make a figure on the 
great theatre of the world, the 
employments of the busy, the 
enterprises of the ambitious, 
and the exploits of the warlike ; 
the virtues which forms the 
happiness, and the crimes which 
occasions the misery of man- 
kind ; originates in that silent 
and secret recess of thought, 
which are hidden from every 
human eye." 



2. Every verb, unless it is in the infinitive mood, or the participle, ought 
to have a nominative case, either expressed or implied; as ; ** Awake: 
arise;" that is, "Awake ye; arise ye." 

We shall here add some examples of inaccuracy, in the use of the verb 
without its nominative case. " As it hath pleased him of his goodness to 
give you safe deliverance, and hath preserved you in the great danger," &c. 
The verb hath preserved has here no nominative case, for it cannot be pro- 
perly supplied by the preceding word, him, which is in the objective case. 
It ought to be, "and as he hath preserved you;" or rather, "and to pre- 
serve you." " If the calm in which he was born, and lasted so long, had 
continued;" " and which lasted," &c. " These we have extracted from 
an historian of undoubted credit, and are the same that were practised," 
&c. ; " and they are the same." " A man whose inclinations led him to 
be corrupt, and had great abilities to manage the business ;" " and who had," 
&c. " A cloud gathering in the north ; which we have helped to raise, and 
may quickly break in a storm upon our heads ;" " and which may quickly." 

"As it hath pleased," &c. What correction should be made in this 
example ? Why ? Recite the Note. 



2. 



14 If the privileges to which he has 
an undoubted right, and he has 
long enjoyed, should now be 
wrested from him, (8.) would 
be flagrant injustice." 

44 These curiosities we have im- 
ported from China, and are 



similar to those which w.ere 

some time ago brought from 

Africa." 
"Will martial flames forever fire 

thy mind, 
And never, never (9.) be to heaven 

resigned ?" 



(1.) Preposition. 
Bule IV. (5.) 

(8.) " it would:' 



(2.) Rule XIII. (3.) Conjunction. (4.) " just persons:* 

Adverb. (6.) Rule XV. (7.) Note I. 405, Rule V£ 

(9.) " And wilt thou never fie?" 



SYNTAX. 123 

3. Every nominative case, except the case absolute, and when an address 
ts made to a person, should belong to some verb, either expressed or im- 
plied ; as, "Who wrote this book?" "James;" that is, " James wrote 
it." " To whom thus Adam," that is, " spoke." 

One or two instancts of the improper use of the nominative case, without 
any verb, expressed or implied, to answer it, may be sufficient to illustrate 
the usefulness of the preceding observations. 

" Which rule, if it had been observed, a neighboring prince would have 
wanted a great deal of that incense which had been offered up fo him." The 
pronoun it is here the nominative case to the verb observed ; and which rule 
is left by itself, a nominative case without any verb following it. This form 
of expression, though improper, is very common. It ought to be, " If this 
rule had been observed," &c. " Man, though he has great variety of 
thoughts, and such from which others as well as himself might receive pro- 
fit and delight, yet they are all within his own breast." In this sentence, 
the nominative man stands alone, and unconnected with any verb, either 
expressed or implied. It should be, " Though man has great variety," &c. 

" Which rule, if it," &c. What is the nominative case to observed 1 ? Has 
the notm rule any verb following it, to which it may be the nominative case ? 
Is this form of expression much used ? Is it not proper ? What correction 
should be made ? Why ? Recite the Note. 

3. 

"(1.) Two substantives, when they "Virtue, however it may be neg- 

come together, and do not lected for a time, men are so 

signify the same thing, the consist; j d as ultimately to ac. 

former (2.) must be in the knowledge and respect genuine 

genitive case." merit." 

4. When a verb comes between two nouns, either of which may be under- 
stood as the subject of the affirmation, it may agree with either of them ; 
Dut some regard must be had to that which is more naturally the subject of it, 
as also to that which stands next to the verb ; as, " His meat was locusts 
and wild honey;" " A great cause of the low state of industry were the 
restraints put upon it;" " The wages of sin is death." 

" The wages of sin is death," or, " Death is the wages of sin." What 
is the nominative case to is ? Is this nominative, in the first example, before 
or after is ? What is the rule for wages ? (3.) Recite the Note. What do 
you mean by the subject of the affirmation? (4.) 

4. 

•* The crown of virtue is peace and " His chief occupation and enjoy 
honor." ment were controversy." 

5. When the nominative case has no personal tense of a verb, but is put 
before a participle, independently on the rest of the sentence, it is called the 
case absolute ; as, "Shame being lost, all virtue is lost;" "That having 
been discussed long ago, there is no occasion to resume it." 

As, in the use of the case absolute, the case is, in English, always the 
nominative, the following example is erroneous, in making it the objective. 
" Solomon was of this mind ; and I have no doubt he made as wise and true 
proverbs, as any body has done since ; him only excepted, who was a much 
greater and wiser man than Solomon." It should be, "Ae only excepted." 

What is the > ule for the case absolute ? (5.) " He only excepted." Which 
word is wrong in this example ? In what particular, wrong ? What correc- 
tion should be made ? 

(-1.) " When two substantives come together:'' (2.) " the frst of them:* 

(3.) Rule XV. 613. (4./ The nominative case. (5.) Rule XVII. 623. 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. 

■ " Him destroyed, All this (2.) will soon follow." 

Or won to what (1.) may work "Whose gray top 

his utter loss, Shall tremble, him descending." 

The nominative case is commonly placed before the verb ; but sometimes 
it is put after the verb, if it is a simple tense ; and between the auxiliary and 
the verb or participle, if a compound tense; as, 

1st. When a question is asked, a command given, or a wish expressed ; 
as, " Confidest thou in me ?" " Read thou !" " Mayst thou be happy !" 
" Long live the king !" 

2d. When a supposition is made without the conjunction if; as, " Were 
it not for this ;" " Had I been there." 

3d. When a verb transitive is used; as, " On a sudden appeared th« 
king." 

4th. When the verb is preceded by the adverbs here, there, then, thence, 
hence, thus, &c. ; as, "Here am I;" " There was he slain;" "Then 
cometh the end;" "Thence ariseth his grief;" "Hence proceeds his 
anger;" " Thus was the affair settled." 

5th. When a sentence depends on neither or nor, so as to be coupled with 
another sentence ; as, " Ye shall not eat of it, neither shall ye touch it, lest 
ye die." 

Some grammarians assert, the phrases as follows, as appears, form what 
are called impersonal verbs ; and should, therefore, be confined to the sin- 
gular number; as, "The arguments advanced were nearly as follows ,*" 
•' The positions were as appears incontrovertible ;" that is, " as it follows," 
"as it appears." If w g- ■• e (say they) the sentence a different turn, and, 
instead of as, say such ■■ <, the verb is no longer termed impersonal ; but 
properly agrees with its nominative, in the plural number; as, " The argu 
ments advanced were nearly such as follow ;" " The positions were such 
as appear uncontrovertio*e."* 

They who doubt the accuracy of Home Tooke's statement, " That as, 
however and whenever used in English, means the same as it, or that, or 
which;" and who are not satisfied whether the verbs, in the sentence first 
mentioned, should be in the singular or the plural number, may vary the 
form of expression. Thus, the sense of the preceding sentences may be 
conveyed in the following terms : — " The arguments advanced were nearly 
of the following nature ;" " The following are nearly the arguments which 
were advanced;" "The arguments advanced were nearly those which 
follow;" "It appears that the positions were incontrovertible;" "That 
the positions were incontrovertible is apparent;" " The positions were in- 
controvertible is apparent;" "The positions were apparently incontro- 
vertible." 

Where is the nominative case usually placed ? Mention a few instances 
in which the nominative follows the verb. What do some grammarians say 
of the phrases as follows, as appears ? What is Dr. Campbell's opinion con- 
cerning them ? 

(1/) •« that which." 437. (2.) Note I. 405. 

♦These grammarians are supported by general usage, and by the authority of an 
•minent critic on language and composition. " When a verb is used impersonally," 
says Dr. Campbell, in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, " it ought undoubtedly to be in the 
singular number, whether the neuter pronoun be expressed or understood." For this 
reason, analogy and usage, favor this mode of expression ; ** The conditions of th« 
agreement were as follows" and not " as follow." A few late writers have incon. 
siderately adopted this last form, through a mistake of the construction. For ths 
same reason, we ought to say, " I shall consider his censures so far only as concerns 
my friend's conduct," and not " so far as concern." 



SYNTAX. 125 

RULE XVIII. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar. 
RULE II. 

Two or more nouns or pronouns of the singular number^ 
connected together by and, either expressed vr under- 
stood, must have verbs, nouns and pronouns agreeing 
with them in the plural number. 

This rule is often violated ; some instances of which are annexed. " And 
so was also James and John, the sons of Zebedee, who were partners with 
Simon ;" " and so were also." " All joy, tranquillity and peace, even for 
ever and ever, doth dwell;" "dwell for ever." "By whose power all 
good and evil is distributed ;" " are distributed." " Their love, and their 
hatred, and their envy, is now perished ;" " are perished." " The thought- 
less and intemperate enjoyment of pleasure, the criminal abuse of it, and 
the forgetfulness of our being accountable creatures, obliterates every seri- 
ous thought of the proper business of life, and effaces the sense of religion 
and of God;" it ought to be, "obliterate" and "efface." 

11 All joy, tranquillity, &c, doth dwell." Which word is wrong in this 
example ? In what particular, wrong ? What correction, then, should be 
made ? Why ? Recite the Rule. 

" Idleness and ignorance is the " The planetary system, boundless 

parent of many vices." space, and the immense ocean, 

44 Wisdom, virtue, happiness, dwells affects the mind with sensations 

with the golden mediocrity." of astonishment." 

14 In unity consists the welfare and " Humility and love, whatever (3.) 

security of every society." obscurities may involve religi- 

44 Time and tide waits for no man." ous tenets, constitutes the 

" His politeness and good disposi- essence of true religion." 

tion was, on failure of their " Religion and virtue, our best sup- 
effect, entirely changed." port (4.) and highest honour, 

4i Patience and diligence, like (1.) confers on the mind principles 

faith, (2.) removes moun- of noble independence." 

tains." 44 What (5.) signifies the counsel 

44 Humility and knowledge, with and care of preceptors, when 

poor apparel, excels pride and youth think they have no (6.) 

ignorance under costly attire." need of assistance ?" 

1. When the nouns are nearly related, or scarcely distinguishable in 
sense, and sometimes even when they are very different, some authors 
have thought it allowable to put the verbs, nouns and pronouns in the sin- 
gular number; as, "Tranquillity and peace dwells there;" "Ignorance 
and negligence has produced the effect ;" " The discomfiture and slaughter 
was very great." But it is evidently contrary to the first principles of 
grammar, to consider two distinct ideas as one, however nice may be their 
shades of difference ; and if there be no difference, one of them must be ; 
euperfluous, and ought to be rejected. 

To support the above construction, it is said, that the verb may be under- 
stood as applied to each of the preceding terms ; as in the following exam- 
ple : "Sand, and salt, and a mass of iron, is easier to bear than a man 
without understanding." But besides the confusion, and the latitude of 

(1.) Adverb. (2.) Rule X. See Note XVIT. 647. (3.) Note I. 405. 

(4.) Rule XV. (5.) Rule VIII. (6.) 239. 

u* 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

application, which such a construction would introduce, it appears to be 
more proper and analogical, in cases where the verb is intended to be ap- 
plied to any one of the terms, to make use of the disjunctive conjunction, 
which grammatically refers the verb to one or other of the preceding terms, 
in a separate view. To preserve the distinctive uses of the copulative and 
disjunctive conjunctions, would render the rules precise, consistent and 
intelligible. Dr. Blair very justly observes, that "two or more substan- 
tives, joined by a copulative, must always require the verb or pronoun to 
which they refer, to be placed in the plural number." 

" Tranquillity and peace dwells there." What dwells ? Is it not, then, a 
violation of Rule XVIII. to use dwells in the singular number ? Whei do 
some writers think it allowable to put the verbs, nouns and pronouns ml the 
singular number ? Is this usage grammatical ? In what does the incorrect- 
ness consist ? If there be no difference in the meaning of terms, are both 
necessary ? What ought to be done with the superfluous one ? How do 
some attempt to support the above construction ? How would they read, on 
this principle, the example beginning with, " Sand, and salt, and a mass of 
iron, u easier," &c. ? (1.) In examples like the last, what conjunction can 
we substitute in the place of and, which will better express the sense ? 
What does Dr. Blair say on this subject ? 

1. 

" Much does human pride and self- "Pride and self-sufficiency stifles 

complacency require correction." sentiments of dependence on 

" Luxurious living, and high plea- our Creator ; levity and at- 

sures, begets a languor and tachment to worldly pleasures 

satiety that destroys all enjoy- destroys the sense of gratitude 

ment." to him." 

2. In many complex sentences, it is difficult for learners to determine, 
whether one or more of the clauses are to be considered as the nominative 
case ; and, consequently, whether the verb should be in the singular or the 
plural number. We shall, therefore, set down a number of varied exam- 
ples of this nature, which may serve as some government to the scholar 
with respect to sentences of a similar construction. "Prosperity, with 
humility, renders its possessor truly amiable." " The ship, with all her 
furniture, was destroyed." "Not only his estate, his reputation too has 
suffered by his misconduct." " The general, also, in conjunction with the 
officers, has applied for redress." " He cannot be justified ; for it is true, 
that the prince, as well as the people, was blameworthy." "The king, 
with his life-guard, has just passed through the village." " In the mutual 
influence of body and soul, there is a wisdom, a wonderful wisdom, which 
we cannot fathom." " Virtue, honour, nay, even self-interest, conspire to 
recommend the measure." " Patriotism, morality, every public and pri- 
vate consideration, demand our submission to just and lawful government." 
" Nothing delights me so much as the works of nature." 

In support of such forms of expression as the following, we see the 
authority of Hume, Priestley, and other writers; and we annex them for 
the reader's consideration: "A long course of time, with a variety of 
accidents and circumstances, are requisite to produce those revolutions." 
" The king, with the lords and commons, form an excellent frame of 
government." "The side * A, with the sides B and C, compose the tri- 
angle." " The fire communicated itself to the bed, which, with the furni- 
ture of the room, and a valuable library, were all entirely consumed." It 
is, however, proper to observe, that these modes of expression do not 
appear to be warranted by the just principles of construction. The words, 
" A long course of time," " The king," " The side A," and "which," 
are the true nominatives to the respective verbs. In the last example, 
the word all should be expunged. As the preposition with governs the 
objective case in English, and, if translated into Latin, would govern 

(1.) " Sand is easier, and salt is easier, and a mass of iron is easier " &c. 



SYNTAX. 12? 

the ablative case, it is manifest, that the clauses following with, in the pre- 
ceding sentences, cannot form any part of the nominative case. They can- 
not be at the same time in the objective and the nominative cases. The 
following sentence appears to be unexceptionable, and may serve to explain 
the others: " The lords and commons are essential branches of the British 
constitution : the king, with them, forms an excellent frame of govern- 
ment." 

" The side A, with the sides B and C, compose the triangle." In this sen- 
tence, what is the nominative case to compose ? Should the verb, then, be 
singular or plural ? What difficulty is mentioned in the beginning of this 
Note? 

2. 

Good order in our affairs, not virtue is wanting, have a very 

mean savings, produce great limited influence, and are often 

profits." despised." 

" The following treatise, together " That superficial scholar and critic, 

with those that accompany it, like some renowed critics of our 

were written many years ago, own, have (2.) furnished most 

for my own private satisfac- decisive proofs that * they (3.) 

tion." knew not the characters of the 

44 That great senator, in concert Hebrew language." 

with several other eminent per- The buildings of the institution 

sons, were the projectors (1.) of have been enlarged ; the ex- 

the revolution." pense of which, added (4.) to 

44 The religion of these people, as the increased price of pro- 
well as their customs and visions, render it necessary to 
manners, were strangely mis- advance the terms of admis- 
represented." sion." 

" Virtue, joined to knowledge and 44 One, added to nineteen, make 

wealth, confer great influence twenty." 

and respectability. But know- "What (5.) black despair, what 

ledge, with wealth united, if horror, fills the mind !" 

3. If the singular nouns and pronouns, which are joined together by a 
copulative conjunction, be of several persons, in making the plural pronouns 
agree with them in person, the second person takes place of the third, and 
the first of both ; as, " James, and thou, and I, are attached to our coun- 
try ;" " Thou and he shared it between you." 

" James, and thou, and I, am attached to our country." What is wrong 
in this example ? In what particular, wrong ? What correction should be 
made? Why? 4 * Thou and he shared it between him." Will you correct 
this example? Why use you instead of Aim ? Will you repeat the Note ? 



64 Thou, and the gardener, and the " My sister and I, as well as my 

huntsman, must share the brother, are daily employed 

blame of this business amongst in their respective occupa> 

them:' tions." 

* Though the construction will not admit of a plural verb, the sentence would 
certainly stand better thus; •'• The king, the lords, and the commons, form an ex. 
cellent constitution." 

(1.) Rule XV. 613. (2.) 632. Exception 1. (3^ 4 he knew." 

(4.) Rule XTI1. 557. (5.) 434 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RTJZiE XXIII. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE III. 

The conjunction disjunctive has an effect contrary to that 
of the conjunction copulative ; for as the verb, noun 
or pronoun, is referred to the preceding terms taken 
separately, it must be in the singular number; as, 
" Ignorance or negligence has caused this mistake ;" 
** John, James, or Joseph, intends to accompany me ;" 
*' There is, in many minds, neither knowledge nor 
understanding." 

The following sentences are variations from this rule : " A man may see 
k metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as well as read them in a descrip- 
tion ;" " read it." " JN either character nor dialogue were yet understood ;" 
'* was yet." " It must indeed be confessed, that a lampoon or a satire do 
not carry in them robbery or murder ;" "does not carry in it." " Death, 
or some worse misfortune, soon divide them;" it ought to be, "divides." 

" Neither character nor dialogue were yet understood." What is wrong 
in this example ? Why ? Will you correct it ? What is the Rule for this 
correction ? 

u Man's happiness or misery are, in " When sickness, infirmity, or re- 

a great measure, put into his verse of fortune affect us, the 

own hands." sincerity of friendship is prov- 

M Man is not such a machine as a ed." 

clock or a watch, which move Let (1.) it be remembered, (2.) 

merely as they are moved ?" that (3.) it is not the uttering, 

iJ Despise no infirmity of mind or or the hearing of certain words, 

body, nor any condition of life ; that constitute the worship of 

for they are, perhaps, to be your the Almighty." 

own lot." " A tart reply, a proneness to re- 

" Speaking impatiently to servants, buke, or a captious and Con- 
or anything that betrays inat- tradictious spirit, are capable 
tention or ill-humour, are cer of imbittering (4.) domestic life, 
lainly criminal." (5.) and of setting friends at 

•* There are many faults in spelling, variance." 
which neither analogy nor pro- 
nunciation justify." 

1. When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun of different persons, 
are disjunctively connected, the verb must agree with that person which is 
placed nearest to it; as, "I or thou art to blame;" "Thou or I am in 
fault ;" "I, thou, or he, is the author of it ;" " George or I am the per- 
son." But it would be better to say, "Either I am to blame, or thou 
art," &c. 

" I or thou am to blame." How should this be altered? What is the 
Rule for it ? 

1. 
M Either (6.) thou or I art greatly " I or thou am the person (7.) who 
mistaken, in our judgment on must undertake the business 

the subject." proposed." 



(1.) Imperative mood, agreeing with thou or you understood, by Rule VI. 
(2.) Infinitive, 480. (3.) Conjunction. 
(6.) 659. (7.) Rule XV. 613. 



(2.) Infinitive, 480. (3.) Conjunction. (4.) Rule X. (5.) Rule XIV. 560. 

(70 



SYNTAX. 12<> 

2. When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun, or pronoun, and 
9. plural one, the verb is made to agree with the plural noun and pronoun; 
as, " Neither poverty nor riches were injurious to him ;" " I or they were 
offended by it." But in this case, the plural noun or pronoun, when it can 
conveniently be done, should be placed next to the verb. 

" I or they was offended." What is wrong in this example ? What is 
the Rule for the correction ? 

2. 

" Both (l/> of the scholars, or one of " Whether one person or more was 

them at least, was present at concerned in the business, does 

the transaction." • not appear." 

^Some parts of the ship and cargo "The cares of this life, or the de- 
were recovered; but neither (2.) ceitfulness of riches, ha3 choked 
the sailors nor the captain was the seeds of virtue in many a 
saved." oromising (3.) mind." 



note xvi. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar. 
RULE IV. 

A verb in the 'plural will agree with a collective noun in 
the singular, when a part only of the individuals are 
meant ; as, " The council were divided in their sen* 
timents." When the noun expresses the idea of unity, 
the verb should be singular ; as, " The council was 
composed wholly of farmers.' 

We ought to consider whether the term will immediately suggest the idea 
of the number it represents, or whether it exhibits to the mind the idea of 
the whole, as one thing. In the former case, the verb ought to be plural; 
in the latter, it ought to be singular. Thus, it seems improper to say, " The 
peasantry goes barefoot, and the middle sort makes use of wooden shoes." 
It would be better to say, " The peasantry go barefoot, and the middle sort 
make use," &c, because the idea, in both these cases, is that of a number. 
On the contrary, there is a harshness in the following sentences, in which 
nouns of number have verbs plural, because the ideas they represent seem 
not to be sufficiently divided in the mind : " The court of Rome were not 
without solicitude." "The house of commons were of small weight." 
" The house of lords were so much influenced by these reasons." " Ste- 
phen's party were entirely broken up by the captivity of their leader." "An 
army of twenty-four thousand were assembled." " What reason have the 
church of Rome for proceeding in this manner ?" u There is indeed no con- 
stitution so tame and careless of their own defence." — " All the virtues oi 
mankind are to be counted upon a few fingers, but his follies and vices are 
innumerable." Is not mankind, in this place, a noun of multitude, and 
such as requires the pronoun referring to be in the plural number) their? 

11 The peasantry goes barefoot," &c. What correction is necessary 4 
this example ? Why ? 

* The people rejoices in that " The court have just ended, after 

which should give it sor- having sat through the trial 

row." of a very long cause." 

M The flock, and not the fleece, " The crowd were so great, that 

are, or ought to be, the oh- the judges with difficulty made 

jrcts of the shepherd's care." their way through them." 

(1.) 407 (2.) Conjunction when followed by nor. (3.) Rule XIII. 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

"The corporation of York consist "This people draweth near to in© 

of a mayor, aldermen, and a with their mouth, and honoreth 

common council." me with their lips, but their 

u The British parliament are com- heart is far from me." 

posed of king-, lords and com- " The committee was divided in its 

mons." sentiments, and it has referred 

" When the nation complain, the the business to the general 

rulers should listen to their meeting." 

voice." "The committee were very full 

M In the days of youth, the multi- when this point was decided ; 

tude eagerly pursues pleasure and their judgment has not 

as its chief g-ood." been called in question." 

• The church have no power to in- Why (6.) do this generation wish 

flict corporal punishment." for greater evidence, when so 

"The fleet were seen sailing (1.) much (5.) is already given?" 

up the channel." "The remnant of the people were 

"The regiment consist of a thou- persecuted with great severi- 

sand (2.) men." ty." 

"The meeting have established "Never were any people so (6.) 

several salutary regulations." much (6.) infatuated (7.) as the 

"The council was not unanimous, Jewish nation." 

and it separated without com- " The shoal of herrings were of an 

ing (3.) to any determina- immense extent." 

tion." " No society are chargeable with the 

"The fleet is all arrived and moored disapproved (8.) misconduct of 

(4.) in safety." particular members." 

RULE IT. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammer, 
RULE V. 

Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand, 
in gender, number and person. 

Of this rule there are many violations to be met with ; a few of which 
may be sufficient to put the learner on his guard. "Each of the sexes should 
keep within its particular bounds, and content themselves with the advantages 
of their particular districts :" better thus ; " The sexes should keep within 
their particular bounds," &c. 4t Can any one, on their entrance into the 
world, be fully secure that they shall not be deceived ?" " on his entrance," 
and " that he shall." " One should not think too favorably of ourselves;" 
" of one's sel/y " He had one acquaintance which poisoned his principles ;" 
4 ' who poisoned." 

Every relative must have an antecedent to which it refers, either ex- 
pressed or implied ; as, " Who is fatal to others, is so to himself;" that is, 
M the man who is fatal to others." 

Who j which what, and the relative that, though in the objective case, are 
always placec before the verb ; as are also their compounds, whoever, who* 
soever, &c. ; as, " He whom ye seek ;" " This is what, or the thing which, 
or that you waHt;" " Whomsoever you please to appoint." 

What is sometimes applied in a manner which appears to be exceptional 
ble ; as, "All fevers, except what are called nervous," &c. It would at 
least be better to say, " except those which are called nervous." 

" One should not think too favorably of ourselves." How should this 
sentence be altered ? What is the Rule for it ? Are the relatives placed be- 
fore or after the verb ? 

(1.) Rule XIII (2.) Note I. 405. (3.) 561. (4.) Rule XI. (5.) 673. 

<6) Adverb. (7.) " were infatuated." (8.) Rule XI1J 



SYNTAX 



131 



" The exercise of reason appears as 
(1.) little (2.) in these sports- 
men, as in the beasts whom they 
sometimes hunt, and by whom 
they are sometimes hunted." 

" They which seek Wisdom will 
certainly find her." 

H The male amongst birds seems to 
discover no beauty, but in the 
color of its species." 

* Take handfuls of ashes of the 
furnace, and let Moses sprinkle 
it towards heaven, in the sight 
of Pharaoh , and it shall be- 
come small dust." 

** Rebecca took goodly raiment, 
which were with her in the 
house, and put them upon 
Jacob." 

**The wheel killed another man, 
which is the sixth which have 
lost their lives by this means." 

"The fair sex, whose task is not 
to mingle in the labors of pub. 
lie life, has its own part assign- 
ed it to act." 

u The Hercules man-of-war foun- 
dered at sea; she overset, and 
lost most (3.) of her men." 

** The mind of man cannot be long 
without some food to nourish 
the activity of his thoughts." 



" What is the reason that our lan- 
guage is less refined than 
those of Italy, Spain, or 
France ?" 

44 1 do not think any one should 
incur censure for being (4.) 
tender (5.) of their reputa- 
tion." 

44 Thou who hast been a witness 
(6.) of the fact, can give an 
account of it." 

44 In religious concerns, or what 
(7.) is conceived to be such, 
(8.) every man must stand or 
fall by the decision of the great 
Judge." 

44 Something like (9.) what (10.) 
have been here premised, are 
the conjectures of Dryden." 

"Thou great First Cause, (11.) 
least understood ! (12.) 
Who all my sense confined, (13.) 

To know but this, that thou art 
good, 
And that myself (11.) am blind; 

Yet gave (14.) me in this dark 
estate," &c. 

"What (6.) art thou, (11.) speak, 
that, (15.) on designs un- 
known, (16.) 

While others sleep, thus range (17.) 
the camp alone ?" 



1. Personal pronouns, being used to supply the place of the noun, are 
not employed in the same part of a sentence as the noun which they repre- 
sent ; for it would be improper to say, " The king he is just ;" "I saw her 
the queen;" "The men they were there;" " Many words they darken 
speech;" "My banks they are furnished with bees." These personals 
are superfluous, a3 there is not the least occasion for a substitute in the 
same part where the principal word is present. The nominative case they t 
in the following sentence, is also superfluous: "Who, instead of going 
about doing good, they are perpetually intent upon doing mischief." 

41 The king he is just." Will you correct this sentence, and tell why it 
v? wrong ? 

1. 



often choke the growth of vir- 
tue." 
4 ' Disappointments and afflictions, 
however disagreeable, they often 
improve us." 

2. The pronoun that is frequently applied to persons as well as to things ; 
but after an adjective in the superlative degree, and after the pronominal 



44 Whoever (18.) entertains such 
an opinion, he judges errone- 
ously." 

84 The cares 



of this world, they 



(1.) Rule IX. (2.) Adverb. (3.) 676. (4.) 561 (J , Rule IV. 

(6.) Rule XV. (7) " those which." 437. (8.) " such concerns, " Rule IV. 

(9.1 Rule IV. (10.) Rule VI. and X. Note XVII. (11.) Rule XV. (12 J Rule 
XIII. (13.) " con Jin edst" (14) '• gavest." (15.) Conjunction. 

'US.) Rule XIII. (17.) " dost range." (18.) •■ He who." 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

adjective same, it is generally used in preference to who or which; as, 
44 Charles XII. king of Sweden, was one of the greatest madmen that the 
world ever saw ;" " Catiline's ioliowers were the most profligate that could 
be found in any city ;" " He is the same man that we saw before." There 
are cases wherein we cannot conveniently dispense with this relative as 
applied to persons: as, first, after who, the interrogative ; " Who, that has 
any sense of religion, would have argued thus ?" Secondly, when persons 
make but a part of the antecedent; "The woman, and the estate, that 
became his portion, were too much for his moderation." In neither of 
these examples could any other relative have been used. 

To what is the pronoun that applied ? and when is it used in preference 
feo who or which? (416. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.) Give an example. 

2. 

* Moses was the meekest man " They are the same persons who 

whom we read of in the Old assisted us yesterday." 

Testament." " The men and things which he has 

••Humility is one of the most ami- studied, have not improved his 

able virtues which we can pos- morals." 

sess." 

3. The pronouns whichsoever, whosoever, and the like, are elegantly 
divided by the interposition of the corresponding substantives : thus, " On 
whichsoever side the king cast his eyes," would have sounded better, if 
written, "On which side soever," &c. 

Will you give an example in which the compound pronoun whichsoever 
may be divided with propriety ? 

3. 

** Howsoever beautiful they appear, contemplated, they appear to 

they have no real merit." advantage." 

" In whatsoever light we view " However much he might despise 

him, his conduct will bear in- the maxims of the king's ad- 

spection." ministration, he kept a total 

** On whichsoever side they are silence on that subject." 

4. Many persons are apt, in conversation, to put the objective case of the 
personal pronouns, in the place of these and those; as, "Give me them 
books," instead of "those books." We may sometimes find this fault 
even in writing; as, " Observe them three there." We also frequently 
meet with those instead of they, at the beginning of a sentence, and where 
there is no particular reference to an antecedent; as, " Those that sow in 
tears, sometimes reap in joy ;" " They that, or they who sow in tears." 

It is not, however, always easy to say, whether a personal pronoun or a 
demonstrative is preferable, in certain constructions. " We are not unac- 
quainted with the calumny of them [or those] who openly make use of the 
warmest, professions." 

Give me them books." Why is this sentence incorrect ? 

4. 

M Which of them two persons has injuries, than those (2.) that 

most distinguished himself?" are most (3.) forward in doing 

a None (1.) more impatiently suffer (4.) them. (5.) 

5. In some dialects, the word what is improperly used for that, and some- 
times we find it in this sense in writing ; " They will never believe but what I 
have been entirely to blame." " I am not satisfied but what," &c, instead of 
" but tha<.." The word somewhat, in the following sentence, seems to be used 
improperly : ' ' These punishments seem to have been exercised in somewhat 

(J.) Rule VI. (2.) Note I. 405. (3.) C77. (4.) 561. (5.) Rule XIV. 



SYNTAX. 133 

an arbitrary manner." Sometime* we read, "In somewhit of." The 
meaning is, '* in a manner which is, in some respects, arbitrary." 

Will you give an example of the improper use of what instead of that ? 

5. 

"He would not be persuaded but "These commendations of his 
what (1.) I was greatly in children appear to have been 

fault. made in somewhat (2.) an in- 

judicious manner. 

6. The pronoun relative who is so much appropriated to persons, that there 
is generally harshness in the application of it, except to the proper names of 
persons, or the general terms man, woman, &c. A term which only implies 
the idea of persons, and expresses them by some circumstance or epithet, will 
hardly authorize the use of it ; as, " That the faction in England who most 
powerfully opposed his arbitrary pretensions." " That faction which," would 
nave been better ; and the same remark will serve for the following examples : 
M France, who was in alliance with Sweden." " The court who," &,c. " The 
cavalry who," &,c. " The cities who aspired at liberty." " That party 
among us who," &c. " The family whom they consider as usurpers." 

In some cases, it may be doubtful, whether this pronoun is properly ap- 
plied or not; as, " The number of substantial inhabitants with whom some 
cities abound." For when a term directly and necessarily implies persons, 
it may in many cases claim the personal relative. " None of the company 
whom he most affected could cure him of the melancholy under which ho 
labored." The word acquaintance may have the same construction. 

How is the relative who used ? 

6. 
" He instructed and fed the " He was the ablest minister which 
crowds who (3.) surrounded James ever possessed.'* 
him." " The court, who gives currency 
H Sidney was one of the wisest and to manners, ought to be ex- 
most active governors, which emplary." (4.) 
Ireland had enjoyed for several " I am happy in the friend which I 
years." have long proved." 

7. We hardly consider little children as persons, because that term gives 
us the idea of reason and reflection ; and, therefore, the application of the 
personal relative who, in this case, seems to be harsh : "A child who." It 
is still more improperly applied to animals: " A lake frequented by that 
fowl whom nature has taught to dip the wing in water." 

Do we say, " A child who," or " A child which" ? Will you repeat the 
Note for this ? 

Z 
*The child whom we have just "He is like (4.) a beast (5.) of 
seen, is wholesomely fed, and prey, who destroys without 

not injured by bandages or oity." 

clothing." 

8. When the name of a person is used merely as a name, and it does nol 
refer to the person, the pronoun vfio ought not to be applied. " It is no 
wonder if such a man did not shine at the court of queen Elizabeth, who 
was but another name for prudence and economy." Better thus : " whose 
name was but another word for prudence," &c. The word whose begins 
likewise to he restricted to persons ; yet it is not done so generally, but that 
good writers, even in prose, use it when speaking of things. The construc- 
tion is not, however, generally pleasing, as we may see in the following 
instances: " Pleasure, vihose nature," &c. " Call every production, whose 
parts and whose nature," &c. 

(1.) " that." Conjunction. (2.) " in a manner which is, in some respects, inju- 
dicious:' (3.) " that/ (4.) Rule IV. (5.) Rule X. Note XVIJ. 

12 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In one case, however, custom authorizes us to use which, with respect to 
persons ; and that is, when we want to distinguish one person of two, or a 
particular person among a number of others. We should then say, " Which 
of the two," or " Which of them is he or she ?" 

" The court of queen Elizabeth, who," &c. Will you correct this sen- 
tence, and give the Note for it ? 

8. 

"Having once disgusted (1.) him, deceive and betray, should be 

he could never regain the favor avoided as the poisonous ad- 

of Nero, who was indeed another der." 

name for cruelty." Who of those men came to his 

14 Flattery, whose nature (2.) is to assistance 7" 

9. As the pronoun relative has no distinction of number, we sometimes 
find an ambiguity in the use of it; as, when we say, "The disciples of 
Christ, whom we imitate," we may mean the imitation either of Christ, or 
of his disciples. The accuracy and clearness of the sentence depend very 
much upon the proper and determinate use of the relative, so that it may 
readily present its antecedent to the mind of the hearer or reader, without 
any obscurity or ambiguity. 

What is remarked in this Note on the use of the relative pronoun ? 

9. 

14 The king (3.) dismissed his min- "There are millions of people in 
ister without any inquiry ; who the empire (4.) of China whose 

had never before committed so support is derived almost entire- 

unjust an action." \y from rice." 

10. It is and it was are often, after the manner of the French, used in a 
plural construction, and by some of our best writers ; as, " It is either a few 
great men who decide for the whole, or it is the rabble that follow a sedi- 
tious ring-leader ;" " It is they that are the real authors, though the soldiers 
are the actors of the revolution;" 44 It was the heretics that first began M 
rail," &c. ; " ' Tis these that early taint the female mind." This license in 
the construction of it is, (if it be proper to admit it at all,) has, however, 
been certainly abused in the following sentence, which is thereby made a 
very awkward one: " It is wonderful the very few accidents, which, in 
several years, happen from this practice." 

How are it is and it was often used ? Give an example in which they are 
used incorrectly in this sense. 

10. 
44 It is remarkable his Gontinual 44 It is indisputably true his asser- 
endeavors to serve us, notwith- tion, though it is a paradox" 

standing our ingratitude." (5.) (6.) 

11. The interjections / oh ! and ah ! require the objective case of a pro- 
noun in the first person after them ; as, " O me ! Oh me ! Ah me !" but 
the nominative case in the second person ; as, 44 O thou persecutor !" " O 
ye hypocrites!" " O thou who dwellest," &c. 

The neuter pronoun, by an idiom peculiar to the English language, ia 
frequently joined, in explanatory sentences, with a noun or pronoun of the 
masculine or feminine gender ; as, "It was I ;" "It was the man or woman 
that did it." 

The neuter pronoun it is sometimes omitted and understood : thus we 
say, "As appears, as follows," for "As it appears, as it follows;" and 
" Maybe," for " It may be." 

(1.) " Having disgusted." Rule XIII. (2.) " the nature of which." (3.) " Tki 
king, who had never" &c. (4.) " There are in the empire" Sec. (5.) " His con 

tinual" &c. ; ending the sentence with, "are remarkable " (6) " His assertion, 
though paradoxical" &c. 



SYNTAX. 135 

The neuter pronoun it is sometimes employed to express, 

1st. The subject of any discourse or inquiry ; as, " It happened on a sum- 
mer's day ;V " Who is it that calls on me ?" 

2d. The state or condition of any person or thing ; as, " How is it with 
you?" 

3d. The thing, whatever it be, that is the cause of any effect or event ; 
or any person considered merely as a cause ; as, " We heard her say it was 
not he ;" " The truth is, it was I that helped her." 

Why is it incorrect to say, " Oh I" ? Why incorrect to say, " Oh thee" ? 

11. 

* Ah ! unhappy thee, who art " Oh ! happy we, surrounded with 
deaf to tlie calls of duty and so many blessings." 

of honor." 



RULE XXXV. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 

RULE VI. 

The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when 
no nominative case comes between it and the verb ; as, 
" The master who taught us ;" " The trees which are 
planted." 

When a nominative case comes between the relative and 
the verb, the relative is governed by some word in its 
own member of the sentence ; as, " He who preserves 
me, to whom I owe my being, whose I am, and whom 
I serve, is eternal. 1 ' 

In the several members of the last sentence, the relative performs a dif- 
ferent office. In the first member, it marks the agent ; in the second, it 
submits to the government of the preposition ; in the third, it represents the 
possessor ; and in the fourth, the object of an action : and therefore it must 
be in the three different cases, correspondent to those offices. 

When both the antecedent and relative become nominatives, each to 
different verbs, the relative is the nominative to the former, and the an- 
tecedent to the latter verb; as, " True philosophy, which is the ornament 
of our nature, co?isists more in the love of our duty, and the practice of 
virtue, than in great talents and extensive knowledge." 

A few instances of erroneous construction will illustrate both branches of 
the sixth rule. The three following refer to the first part: " How can wo 
avoid being grateful to those whom, by repeated kind offices, have proved 
themselves our real friends ?" " These are the men whom, you might sup- 
pose, were the authors of the work." " If you were here, you would find 
three or four, whom you would say passed their time agreeably." In all 
these places, it should be who, instead of whom. The two latter sentences 
contain a nominative between the relative and the verb ; and, therefore,, 
seem to contravene the rule ; but the student will reflect, that it is not the. 
nominative of the verb with which the relative is connected. — The remain- 
ing examples refer to the second part of the rule : " Men of fine talents 
are not always the persons who we should esteem." " The persons who 
you dispute with are precisely of your opinion." "Our tutors are our 
benefactors, who we owe obedience to, and who we ought to love." In 
these sentences, wJwm should be used instead of who. 

44 These are the men whom, you might suppose, were," &c. Will you 
correct this example, and give the rule for it ? 



136 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



" We are dependent on each others' 
assistance : whom is there that 
can subsist by himself?" 

•' If he will not hear his best friend, 
whom shall be sent to admonish 
him ?" 

"They icho (1.) much is given to, 
will have much (2.) to answer 
for." (3.) 

• & It is not to be expected that 
they, whom in early life have 
been dark and deceitful, should 
afterwards become fair and in- 
genuous." 



11 They who have labored to make 
us wise and good, are the per- 
sons who we ought to love and 
respect, and who we ought to 
be grateful to." 

" The persons, who conscience and 
virtue support, may smile at the 
caprices of fortune." 

" From the character of those who 
you associate with, your own 
will be estimated." 

"That (4.) is the student who I 
gave the book to, and whom, I 
am persuaded, deserves it" 



1. When the relative pronoun is of the interrogative kind, the noun or 
pronoun containing the answer, must be in the same case as that which 
contains the question ; as, " Whose books are these ?" k ' They are John's.' 
" Who gave them to him?" " We." " Of whom did you buy them?" 
44 Of a bookseller ; him who lives at the Bible and Crown." " Whom did 
you see there ?" " Both him and the shopman." The learner will readily 
comprehend this rule, by supplying the words which are understood in the 
answers. Thus, to express the answers at large, we should say, " They 
are John's books ;" " We gave them to him ;" " We bought them of him 
who lives," &c. ; " We saw both him and the shopman." As the relative 
pronoun, when used interrogatively, refers to the subsequent word or 
phrase containing the answer to the question, that word or phrase may 
properly be termed the subsequent to the interrogative. 

" Of whom did you buy them ?" " Of a bookseller; he who lives," &c. 
What is wrong in this sentence, and how may it be corrected ? What is the 
Note for it ? 



1. 



the 



articles 
mercer ; he 
near (6.) the 



•* Of whom w T ere 

bought?" "Of a 

(5.) who resides 

mansion-house." 
**Was any person besides (6.) the 

mercer present ?" " Yes, both 

him and his clerk." 



Who was the money paid to ?" 
"To the mercer and hia 
clerk." 

Who counted it?" "Both the 
clerk and him." 






EULB XXV. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar. 

RULE VIL 

When the relative is preceded by two nominatives of 
different persons, the relative and verb may agree in 
person with either, accoi'ding to the sense; as, "I am 
the man who command you ;" or, " I am the man who 
commands you." 

The form of the first of the two preceding sentences expresses the meaning 
rather obscurely. It would be more perspicuous to say, " I, who command 
you, am the man." Perhaps the difference of meaning produced by referring 
the relative to different antecedents, will be more evident to the learner in the 



(1) 



to whom." (2.) 673. 

(5J Rule XV. 



(3.) 596. 



(4.) Note I. 405. 
(6.) 247. 



SYNTAX. 137 

following sentences : " I am the general who gives the orders to-day ;" "1 
am the general, who give the orders to-day ;" that is, "I, who give the 
orders to-day, am the general." 

When the relative and the verb have been determined to agree with either 
of the preceding nominatives, that agreement must be preserved throughout 
the sentence ; as in the following instance : "I am the Lord, that makeih 
all things; that slretcheth forth the heavens alone." Isa. xliv. 24. Thus 
far is consistent : the Lord, in the third person, is the antecedent, and the 
verb agrees with the relative in the third person: "I am the JLord, which 
Lord, or he, that maketh all things." If /were made the antecedent, the 
relative and verb should agree with it in the first person; as, "/am the 
Lord, that make all things; that stretch forth the heavens alone." But 
should it follow, '* that spreadeth abroad the earth by myself," there would 
arise a confusion of persons, and a manifest solecism. 

"lam the man who command you." "lam the man who commands 
you." What is the nominative to command in the first sentence ? What to 
commands in the second ? Rule for each ? Why is the verb of a different 
person in different sentences ? 

"I acknowledge that (1.) I am "I perceive that thou art a pupil 

the teacher, (5.) who adopt who possesses bright parts, but 

that sentiment, and maintains who hast cultivated them but 

the propriety of such meas- (3.) little." (4.) 

ures." (2.) " Thou art he (5.) who breathest on 

"Thou art a friend (5.) that hast the earth with the breath of 

often relieved me, and that has spring, and who covereth it 

not deserted me now, in the with verdure and beauty." 

time of peculiar need." " 1 am the Lord (5.) thy God, (5.) 

"I am the man who approves of who teacheth thee to profit 

wholesome discipline, and who and who lead thee by the way 

recommend it to others ; but I thou shouldst go." 

am not a person who promotes "Thou art the Lord who did choose 

useless severity, or who object Abraham, and broughtest him 

to mild and generous treat* forth (4.) out of (6.) Ur of the 

ment" Chaldees." 

HULI! IV. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammer, 

RULE VIII. 

Adjectives belong to the nouns which they describe. 

Note I. Adjective pronouns and numerals must agree in 
number with the nouns to which they belong. 

1. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

A few instances of the breach of this rule are here exhibited : " I have 
not travelled this twenty years ;" " these twenty. " " I am not recommend- 
ing these kind of sufferings ;" " this kind." " Those set of books was a 
valuable present ;" " that set." 

44 1 have not travelled this twenty years." How should this be altered ? 
Why? 

** Tfiese kind of indulgences soften playing (9.) this two hours." 

and injure the mind." (10.) 

" Instead (7.) of improving (8.) " Those sort of favors did real in, 

yourselves, you have been jury, under the appearance of 

kindness." 



(1.) 652. (2.) " adopts and maintains," or " adopt and maintain." (3.) 654, 

(4.) Adverb. (5.) Rule XV. (6.) 247. (7.) 247. (8.) 561. (9.) Rul* 

XIII. (10.) Rule XXII. 646. 

12* 



I3B ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

* The chasm made (1.) by the earth- "How many a sorrow (5.) should 
quake was twenty foot (2.) we avoid, if we were not in- 

broad, (3.) and one hundred dustrious to make them !" 

fathom (4.) in depth." " He saw one or more persons (6.) 

enter (7.) the garden." 

1. The word means, in the singular number, and the phrase " by this 
means," "by that means" are used by our best and most correct writers; 
namely, Bacon, Tillotson, Atterbury, Addison, Steele, Pope, &c* They 
are indeed, in so general and approved use, that it would appear awkward, 
if not affected, to apply the old singular form, and say, " by this mean ;" 
" by that mean ;" "it was by a mean;" although it is more agreeable to 
the general analogy of the language. " The word means (says Priestley), 
belongs to the class of words, which do not change their termination on ae» 
eount of number ; for it is used alike in both numbers." 

The word amends is used in this manner, in the following sentences: 
"Though he did not succeed, he gained the approbation of his country; 
and with this amends he was content." " Peace of mind is an honorable 
amends for the sacrifices of interest." " In return, he received the thanks 
of his employers, and the present of a large estate : these were ample 
amends for all his labors." " We have described the rewards of vice : the 
good man's amends are of a different nature. ' 

It can scarcely be doubted, that this word amends (like the word means) 
had formerly its correspondent form in the singular number, as it is derived 
from the French amende, though now it is exclusively established in the 
plural form. If, therefore, it be alleged, that mean should be applied in the 
singular, because it is derived from the French moyen, the same kind of 
argument may be advanced in favor of the singular amende ; and the general 
analogy of the language may also be pleaded in support of it. 

Campbell, in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, has the following remark on 
the subject before us : " JSo persons of taste will, I presume, venture so 
far to violate the present usage, and consequently to shock the ears of the 
generality of readers, as to say, ' By this mean, by that mean. 1 " 

(1.) Rule XIII. (2.) Note XVIII. 648. (3.) " chasm— broad." Rule IV. 

(4.) Rule IX. (5.) " many sorrows." (6.) " one person, or more than one." 

(7.) Rule XII. 

* " By this mtans he had them the more at vantage, being tired and harassed with 
a long march." Bacon. 

" By this means one great restraint from doing evil would be taken away." " And 
this is an admirable means to improve men in virtue." " By that means they have 
rendered their duty more difficult." Tillotson. 

" It renders us careless of approving ourselves to God, and by that means securing 
the continuance of his goodness." " A good character, when established, should not 
be rested in as an end, but employed as a means of doing still further good." 

Atterbury. 

" By this means they are happy in each other." " He by that means preserves his 
superiority." Addison. 

11 Your vanity by this means will want its food." Steele. 

" By this means alone, their greatest obstacles will vanish." Pope. 

" Which custom has proved the most effectual means to ruin the nobles." 

Dean Swift. 

4t There is no means of escaping the persecution." " Faith is not only a means of 
obeying, but a principal act of obedience." Dr. Youno. 

" He looked on money as a necessary means of maintaining and increasing power.'* 

Lord Lyttleton's Henry II. 

" John was too much intimidated not to embrace every means afforded for hia 
Safety." Goldsmith. 

44 Lest this means should fail." " By means of ship-money, the late king," &*!, 
•'The only means of securing a durable peace." Hume. 

44 By this means there was nothing left to the parliament of Ireland," &c. 

Blackstone. 

•* By this means so many slaves escaped out of the hands of their masters." 

Dr. Robertson. 

44 By this means they bear witness to each Other." Burke. 

44 By this means the wrath of man was made to turn against itself." Dr. Blair. 

44 A magazine, which has, by this means, contained," &,c. 4 * Birds, in general, pro- 
mise their food by means of their beak." Dr. Paley. 



S Y i\ T A X . 139 

Lowth and Johnson seem to be against the use of means in the singular 
number. They do not, however, speak decisively on the point ; but rather 
dubiously, as if they knew that they were questioning eminent authorities 
as well as general practice. That they were not decidedly against the ap- 
plication of this word to the singular number, appears from their own lan- 
guage : " Whole sentences, whether simple or compound, may become 
members of other sentences by means of some additional connection." — ■ 
Dr. Lowth's Introduction to English Grammar. 

" There is no other method of teaching that of which any one is ignorant, 
but by means of something already known." — Dr. Johnson. Idler. 

It is remarkable that our present version of the Scriptures makes no use, 
as far as the compiler can discover, of the word mean; though there are 
several instances to be found in it of the use of means, in the sense and con- 
nection contended for. " By this means thou shalt have no portion on this 
side the river.' ' Ezra iv. 16. " That by means of death," &c. Heb. ix. 
15. It will scarcely be pretended, that the translators of the sacred volumes 
did not accurately understand the English language ; or that they would 
have admitted one form of this word, and rejected the other, had not their 
determination been conformable to the best usage. An attempt, therefore, 
to recover an old word, so long since disused by the most correct writers, 
seems not likely to be successful ; especially as the rejection of it is not 
attended with any inconvenience. 

The practice of the best and most correct writers, or a great majority of 
them, corroborated by general usage, forms, during its continuance, the 
standard of language ; especially if, in particular instances, this practice 
continue after objection and due consideration. Every connection and ap- 
plication of words and phrases, thus supported, must therefore be proper, 
and entitled to respect, if not exceptionable in a moral point of view. 

' ' Si volet usus 

11 Quern penes arbitriam est, etjus, et norma loquendi." Hor. 

On this principle, many forms of expression, not less deviating from the 
general analogy of the language than those before mentioned, are to be con- 
sidered as strictly proper and justifiable. Of this kind are the following : 
" None of them are varied to express the gender ;" and yet none originally 
signified no one. " He himself shall do the work :" here, what was at first 
appropriated to the objective, is now properly used as the nominative case. 
" You have behaved yourselves well :" in this example, the word you is put 
in the nominative case plural, with strict propriety ; though formerly it was 
confined to the objective case, and ye exclusively used for the nominative. 

With respect to anomalies and variations of language, thus established, it is 
the grammarian's business to submit, not to remonstrate. In pertinaciously 
opposing the decision of proper authority, and contending for obsolete modes 
of expression, he may, indeed, display learning and critical sagacity ; and, 
in some degree, obscure points that are sufficiently clear and decided ; but he 
cannot reasonably hope either to succeed in his aims, or to assist the learner, 
in discovering and respecting the true standard and principles of language. 

Cases which custom has left dubious, are certainly within the gram- 
marian's province. Here, he may reason and remonstrate on the ground 
of derivation, analogy, and propriety : and his reasonings may refine and 
improve the language : but when authority speaks out, and decides the 
point, it were perpetually to unsettle the language, to admit of cavil and 
debate. Anomalies, then, under the limitation mentioned, become the 
law, as elearly as the plainest analogies. 

The reader will perceive that, in the following sentences, the use of the 
word mean in the old form has a very uncouth appearance : "By the mean 
of adversity we are often instructed." " He preserved his health by mean 
of exercise." " Frugality is one mean of acquiring a competency." They 
should be, " Bv means of adversity," &c. ; " By means of exercise," &c. ; 
11 Frugality isfme means," &c. 

Good writers do indeed make use of the substantive (1.) mean in the singu- 

(1.) Nouns are sometimes called substantives. 



I4# 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



lar number, and in that number only, to signify mediocrity, middle rate, &c_ 
as, " This is a mean between the two extremes." But in the sense of 
instrumentality, it has long been disused by the best authors, and by almost 
every writer. 

This means and that means should be used only when they refer to what 
is singular ; these means and those means, when they respect plurals ; as, 
" He lived temperately, and by this means preserved his health ;" " The 
scholars were attentive, industrious, and obedient to their tutors ; and by 
these means acquired knowledge." 

We have enlarged on this article, that the young student may be led to 
reflect on a point so important as that of ascertaining the standard of pro- 
priety in the use of language. 

In what number is the word means used ? What does Dr. Priestley remark 
concerning the use of this word ? What other word is used in this manner? 
What does Dr. Campbell remark in regard to the use of the phrase, " By 
this mean ?" Do Dr. Lowth and Dr. Johnson approve of the use of mean* 
in the singular number? Do good writers make use of the substantive (1.) 
mean hf the singular number? Give an example. When should " Thia 
means" and " That means" be used ? When " These means" and " Those 



1. 



means ? 

••Charles was extravagant, and by 

this mean became poor and 

despicable." 
• It was by that ungenerous mean 

that (2.) he obtained his end." 
••Industry is the mean of obtaining 

competency." 
•* Though a promising measure, it is 

a mean which I cannot adopt." 

2. When two persons or things are spoken of in a sentence, and there is 
occasion to mention them again for the sake of distinction, that is used in 
reference to the former, and this, in reference to the latter: as, " Self-love, 
which is the spring of action in the soul, is ruled by reason : but for that t 
man would be inactive ; and but for this, he would be active to no end." 

How are the pronouns that and this used ? 

2. 
" Religion raises men above them 



14 This person embraced every op- 
portunity to display his talents; 
and by these means rendered 
himself ridiculous." 

M Joseph was industrious, frugal 
and discreet ; and by this 
means obtained property and 
reputation." 



selves ; irreligion sinks them 
beneath the brutes : that (3.) 
binds them down (4.) to a poor, 
pitiable speck of perishable 
earth ; this opens for them a 
prospect to the skies." 
••More rain falls in the first two 
summer months, than in the 
first two winter ones : but it 



upon the earth in those than in 
these ; because there is a much 
slower evaporation." 
Rex and Tyrannus are of very 
different characters. The one 
(3.) rules his people by laws to 
which they consent ; the other, 
(5.) by his absolute will and 
power: this is called freedom \ 
that (5.) tyranny." 



makes a much greater show 

3. The distributive adjective pronouns each, every, either, agree with th« 
nouns, pronouns and verbs, of the singular number only ; as, " The kin* 
of Israel, and Jehoshaphat, the king of Judah, sat each on his throne ; 
" Eveiy tree is known by its fruit ;" unless the plural noun convey a col- 
lective idea ; as, " Every six months ;" " Every hundred years." The fol. 
lowing phrases are exceptionable: "Let each esteem others better than 
themselves ;" it ought to be, " himself.'' 1 " The language should be both 
perspicuous and correct : in proportion as either of these tw# qualities are 
wanting, the language is imperfect ;" it should be, " is wanting." " Every 



(1.) Note 1, p. 
(5.) Rule XI. 



J39 



(2.) 652. 



(3.) 407. Rule VI. 



(4.) Advert* 



SYNTAX. 141 

or*e of the letters bear regular dates, and contain proofs of attachment ;" 
"bears a regular date, and contains." "Every town and village were 
burned ; every grove and every tree were cut down;" "was burned, and 
was cut down." 

Either is often used improperly, instead of each ; as, " The king of Israel, 
and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, sat either of them on his throne;" 
" Nadab and Abihu, the sons of Aaron, took either of them his censer." 
Each signifies both of them taken distinctly or separately ; either properly 
signifies only the one or the other of them, taken disjunctively. 

" Tne king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, sat either of 
them on their throne." Will you correct this, and give the rule for it ? 

3. 

** Each of them, in their (1.) turn, is productive of much (7.) in* 

receive the benefits to which ward joy or bitterness.' 1 

they are entitled." " Whatever (8.) he undertakes, 

44 My counsel to each of you is, that either (9.) his pride or his 

you (2.) should make it your folly disgust us." 

endeavor to come to a friendly " Every man and every woman 

agreement." were numbered." 

" By discussing what (3.) relates to "Neither of those men seem to have 

each particular, in their order, any idea that their opinions 

we shall Letter understand the may be ill founded." 

subject" "When benignity and gentleness 

"Every person, whatever (4.) be reign within, (7.) we are al- 

their station, (5.") are bound ways (7.) least (7.) in hazard 

by the diiCes of morality and from without: (10.) every per- 

religion." son and every occurrence are 

"Every leaf, every twig, (6.) beheld in the most favorable 

every drop of water, teem with light." 

life." "On either side of the river was 

* Every man's heart and temper there the tree of life." 

4. Adjectives are sometimes improperly applied as adverbs ; as, " Indif- 
ferent honest ; excellent well; miserable poor;" instead of '• Indifferently 
honest; excellently well ; miserably poor." "He behaved himself con- 
formable to that great example;" "conformably." "Endeavor to live 
hereafter suitable to a person in thy station;" "suitably." ".1 can never 
think so very mean of him ;" " meanly." " He describes this river agree- 
able to the common reading;" "agreeably." "Agreeable to my promise, I 
now write ;" "agreeably." " Thy exceeding great reward ;" when united 
to an adjective, or adverb not ending in ly, the word exceeding has ly added 
to it; as, " exceedingly dreadful, exceedingly great ;" " exceedingly well, 
exceedingly more active :" but when it is joined to an adverb or adjective, 
having that termination, the ly is omitted ; as, " Some men think exceeding 
clearly, and reason exceeding forcibly;" " She appeared on this occasion, 
exceeding lovely." — " He acted in this business bolder than was expected." 
11 They behaved the noblest, because they were disinterested." They should 
have been, " more boldly, most nobly." The adjective pronoun such is often 
misapplied; as, " He was such an extravagant young man, that he spent 
his whole patrimony in a few years ;" it should be, " so extravagant a young 
man." "I never before saw such large trees;" "saw trees so large. 
When we refer to the species or nature of a thing, the word such is properly 
applied ; as, " Such a temper is seldom found :" but when degree is signi- 
fied, we use the word so ; as, " So bad a temper is seldom found." 

Adverbs are likewise improperly used as adjectives; as, " The tutor ad- 
dressed him in terms rather warm, but suitably to his offence ;" " suitable." 

(1.) "his." (2.) "Ae.~ (3.) 437. (4) Rule XV. (5.) Rule VI. 

(6.) Rule XT. (7.) Adverb. (8.) Rule VIII. <9.) t>59. (10.) 'from 

Without,'* i e. ** externally." 589 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" They were seen wandering about solitarily and distressed ;" " solitary.** 
" He lived in a manner agreeably to the dictates of reason and religion ;" 
" agreeable" " The study of syntax should be previously to that of punc- 
tuation ;" "previous." 

Young persons who study grammar, find it difficult to decide, in particular 
constructions, whether an adjective, or an adverb, ought to be used. A few 
observations on this point, may serve to inform their judgment, and direct 
their determination. They should carefully attend to the definitions of the 
adjective and the adverb ; and consider whether, in the case in question, 
quality or manner is indicated. In the former case, an adjective is proper; 
in the latter, an adverb. A number of examples will illustrate this direction,, 
and prove useful on other occasions. 

" She looks cold — She looks coldly on him.'* 
'• He feels warm — He feels warmly the insult offered to him.' 
•' He became sincere and virtuous — He became sincerely virtuous." 
" She lives free from care — He lives freely at another's expense." 
'* Harriet always appears neat — She dresses neatly." 
" Charles has grown great by his wisdom — He has grov/n greatly in re« 
putation." 

" They now appear happy — They now appear happily in earnest." 

" The statement seems exact — The statement seems exactly in point." 

The verb to be, in all its moods and tenses, generally requires the word 
Immediately connected with it to be an adjective, not an adverb ; and con- 
sequently, when this verb can be substituted for any other, without varying 
the sense or the construction, that other verb must also be connected with 
an adjective. The following sentences elucidate these observations : " This 
is agreeable to our interest." " That behaviour was not suitable to his sta- 
tion." " Rules should be conformable to sense." " The rose smells [is] 
sweet." " How sweet the hay smells [is] !" " How delightful the country 
appears [is] !" " How pleasant the fields look [are] !" " The clouds look 
[are] dark." " How black the sky looked [was] !" "The apple tastes 
[is] sour!" "How bitter the plums tasted [were] !" "He feels [is] 
happy." In all these sentences, we can, with perfect propriety, substitute 
some tenses of the verb to be, for the other verbs. But in the following 
sentences we cannot do this : " The dog smells disagreeably." " George 
feels exquisitely." " How pleasantly she looks at us !" 

The directions contained in this Note are offered as useful, not as complete 
and unexceptionable. Anomalies in language every where encounter us ; 
but we must not reject rules", because they are attended with exceptions. 

Why is " indifferent honest" an incorrect expression ? Do we say, " ex- 
ceeding dreadful," and " exceeding great" ? What, then, do we use in the 
place of exceeding ? When, then, do we use exceedingly ? When exceeding? 
"The tutor addressed him in terms rather warm, but suitably to his of- 
fence." Why is this sentence wrong ? Correct it. How can we tell whether 
an adjective or an adverb ought to be used ? Which do we use, when quality 
is indicated ? Which, when manner is indicated ? Which does the verb to be 
generally require to be connected with it, the adjective or adverb ? To illus- 
trate the distinct and proper use of both the adverb and adjective, I will give 
you some examples. Would you then say, " He is diligently and attentive- 
ly," or " diligent and attentive" ? " She will be happy," or " happily" ? 
"He looks cold," or " coldly" ? "She looks cold on him." Can we use 
?.? for looks, and make sense ? Would you, then, say, " She looks cold oo 
him," or "coldly on him" ? " She lives freely [is] from care" ? Why? 
*• He lives free at another's expense" ? "He feels warmly" ? "He feels 
warm the insult offered him" ? " He became sincerely and virtuously" ? 
" He became sincere virtuous" ? Why ? " Harriet always appears neatly-- 
She dresses neat" ? " Charles has grown great by his wisdom — He is grown 
great in his reputation" ? " They now appear happily — They now appear 
happy in earnest" ? " The statement seems exactly — The statement seems 
exact in point ?" " How sweetly the hay smells ! " ? " How delightful the 
country appears!" ? " How pleasant the fields look !" ? " The clouds look 
darkly" ? " The apples taste sourly" ? 



SYNTAX. 



143 



She reads proper, writes very neat, 

and composes accurate." 
■ He was extreme prodigal, and his 
property is now near exhaust- 
ed." 
1 They generally succeeded ; for 
they lived conformable to the 
rules of prudence." 
1 We may reason very clear and ex- 
ceeding strong, without know- 
ing that there is such a thing 
as a syllogism." 
1 He had many virtues, and was 
exceeding beloved." 

The amputation was exceeding 
well performed, and saved the 
patient's life." 

He came agreeable to his promise, 
and conducted himself suitable 
to the occasion." 

He speaks very fluent, reads ex- 
cellent, but does not think very 
coherent." 

He behaved himself submissive, 
and was exceeding careful not 
to give (1.) offence." 

They rejected the advice, and con- 
ducted themselves exceedingly 
indiscreetly." 

He is a person of great abilities, 
and exceeding upright ; and is 
like to be a very useful member 
(2.) of the community." 



The conspiracy was the* easier 
(3.) discovered, from its (4.) 
being known (5.) to many." 

Not being fully acquainted with 
the subject, he could affirm no 
stronger (6.) than he did." 

He was so deeply impressed with 
the subject, that few could speak 
nobler upon it." 

We may credit his testimony, for 
he says express, that he saw the 
transaction." 

Use a little wine for thy stomach's 
sake, and thine often (7.; in- 
firmities." 

From these favorable beginnings, 
we may hope for a soon (8.) 
and prosperous issue." 

He addressed several exhortations 
to them suitably to their cir- 
cumstances." 

Conformably to their vehemence 
of thought, was their vehemence 
of gesture." 

We should implant in the minds 
of youth such seeds and prin- 
ciples of piety and virtue, as 
(9.) are likely to take soonest 
and deepest root." 

Such (10.) an amiable disposition 
will secure universal regard." 

Such distinguished virtues seldom 
occur." 



5. Double comparatives and superlatives should be avoided ; such as, "a 
worser conduct ;" " on lesser hopes ;" " a more serener temper ;" "the 
most straitest sect ;" "a more superior work." They should be, " worse 
conduct ;" " less hopes ;" " a more serene temper ;" " the straitest sect ;" 
44 a superior work." 

" A worser conduct." Will you correct this sentence, and give the RuW 
for it ? 



5. 



•* *T is more easier to build two 
chimneys than to maintain 
one." 

M The tongue is like (11.) a race- 
horse, (12.] which runs the 
faster (13.) the lesser weight it 
carries." 



" The pleasures of the understand 
ing are more preferable than 
(14.) those of the imagination, 
or of sense." 

u The nightingale sings : hers is 
the most sweetest voice in the 
grove." 



(1.) Rule XII. (2.) Rule XV. (3.) " more easily." ,4.) Rule I 

(5.; "-being known" — participial noun. (6.) " not affirm more strongly." 

(7 )" thy frequent." (8.) " speedy." (9.) 656. (10.) " A disposition 

so amiable" &.c. See the Note, a few lines before the close. (11.) Rule IV 

112.) Rule X.— Note XVII. 647. (13.) 5 ( J0. (14.) "preferable to." 



/44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

14 The Most Highest hath created us " The Supreme Being- is the most 
for his glory, and for our own wisest, and most powerfullest, 

happiness." and the most best of beings." 

6. Adjectives that have in themselves a superlative signification, do not 
properly admit of the superlative or comparative form superadded ; such as 
thief, extreme, perfect, right, universal, supreme^ &c. ; which are sometimes 
improperly written chiefest, extremest, perfsctest, rightest, most universal, 
most supreme, &c. The following expressions are, therefore, improper: 
" He sometimes claims admission to the chiefest offices." "The quarrel 
became so universal and national." " A method of attaining the rightest 
and greatest happiness." The phrases, '* so perfect," "so right," "so 
extreme," "so universal," &c, are incorrect; because they imply that 
one thing is less perfect, less extreme, &c, than another, which is not 
possible. 

Is it proper to say, " The most perfect work ?" Why not? 

6. 

w Virtue confers the supremest (1.) "His work is perfect; (4.) his 

dignity on man ; and should be brother's, more perfect ; and 

his chiefest desire." his father's, the most perfect 

"His assertion was more true (2.) of all." 

than that of his opponent ; nay, " He gave the fullest and most sin- 
the words of the latter were cere proof of the truest friend- 
most untrue." (3.) ship." 

7. Inaccuracies are often found in the way in which the degrees of com. 
parison are applied and construed. The following are examples of wrong 
construction in this respect : " This noble nation hath, of all others, admit- 
ted fewer corruptions." The word fewer is here construed precisely as if 
it were the superlative. It should be, " This noble nation hath admitted 
fewer corruptions than any other." We commonly say, "This is the 
weaker of the two," or, " the weakest of the two ;" but the former is the 
regular mode of expression, because there are only two things compared. 
" The vice of covetousness is what enters deepest into the soul of any 
other." " He celebrates the church of England as the most perfect of all 
others." Both these modes of expression are faulty: we should not say, 
" the best of any man," or, " the best of any other man," for, " the best 
of men." The sentences may be corrected by substituting the compara- 
tive in the room of the superlative : " The vice, &c, is what enters deeper 
into the soul than any other.'' " He celebrates, &c, as more perfect than 
any other." It is also possible to retain the superlative, and render the 
expression grammatical: "Covetousness, of all vices, enters the deepest 
into the soul." " He celebrates, &c, as the most perfect of all churches." 
These sentences contain other errors, against w 7 hich it is proper to caution 
the learner. The words deeper and deepest, being intended for adverbs, 
should have been more deeply, most deeply. The phrases more perfect and 
most perfect are improper ; because perfection admits of no degrees of com- 
parison. We may say, nearer or nearest to perfection, or more or less 
imperfect. 

In speaking of two persons, should we say, " The weaker of the two," 
©r, " The weakest of the two?" Why ? 

7. 

m A talent of this kind would, per- " He spoke with so much propriety, 
haps, prove the likeliest of any that I understood him the best 

ether (5.) to succeed." of all the others (6.) who spoke 

" He is the strongest of the two, on the subject." 

but not the wisest." " Eve was the fairest of all her 

daughters." 

(1.) u the suprewest— supreme." (2.) " better founded." (3.)" not true." 

V4.) " well executed— still better— best." (5.) " all" (6.) " of all who, 1 * 






SYNTAX. 145 

8. In some cases, adjectives should not be separated from their substan- 
tives, even by words which modify their meaning, and make but one sense 
with them; as, " A large enough number, surely." It should be, "A 
number large enough." " The lower sort of people are good enough 
judges of one not very distant from them." 

The adjective is usually placed before its substantive; as, " A generous 
man ;" " How amiable a woman !" The instances in which it comes after 
the substantive, are the following : 

1st. When something depends upon the adjective ; and when it gives a 
belter sound, especially in poetry ; as, " A man generous to his enemies ;" 
14 Feed me with food convenient for me ;" "A tree three feet thick ;" "A 
body of troops fifty thousand strong;" "The torrent tumbling through 
rocks abrupt. 17 

2d. When the adjective is emphatical ; as, "Alexander the Great; 1 * 
$l Lewis the Bold ;" " Goodness infinite ,*" " Wisdom unsearchable." 

3d. When several adjectives belong to one substantive; as, "A man 
just, wise, and charitable;" u A woman modest, sensible, and virtuous." 

4th. When the adjective is preceded by an adverb ; as, " A boy regularly 
studious ;" " A girl unaffectedly modest." 

5th. When the verb to be, in any of its variations, comes between a sub- 
stantive and an adjective, the adjective may frequently either precede or 
follow it ; as, " The man is happy " or, " Happy is the man, who makes 
virtue his choice :" " The interview was delightful ;" or, " Delightful was 
the interview." 

6th. When the adjective expresses some circumstance of a substantive 
placed after an active verb ; as, " Vanity often renders its possessors despica- 
ble." In an exclamatory sentence, the adjective generally precedes the 
substantive ; as, " How despicable does vanity often render its possessor !" 

There is sometimes great beauty, as well as force, in placing the adjective 
before the verb, and the substantive immediately after it ; as, " Great is the 
Lord ! just and true are thy ways, thou King of saints !" 

Sometimes the word all is emphatically put after a number of particulars 
comprehended under it. "Ambition, interest, honor, all concurred." Some- 
limes a substantive, which likewise comprehends the preceding particulars, 
is used in conjunction with this adjective; as, "Royalists, republicans, 
churchmen, sectaries, courtiers, all parties, concurred in the illusion." 

An adjective pronoun, in the plural number, will sometimes properly as- 
sociate with a singular noun ; as, " Our desire, your intention, their resigna- 
tion." This association applies rather to things of an intellectual nature, 
than to those which are corporeal. It forms an exception to the general rule. 

A substantive with its adjective is reckoned as one compounded word ; 
whence they often take another adjective, and sometimes a third, and so 
on ; as, " An old man ; a good old man ; a very learned, judicious, good 
old man." 

" Though the adjective always relates to a substantive, it is, in many in- 
stances, put as if it were absolute ; especially where the noun has been 
mentioned before, or easily understood, though not expressed ; as, "I often 
survey it." 

Is it correct to say, " A large enough number" ? How should it be alter- 
ed ? What is the Note for it ? Should the adjective be placed usually before 
or after the noun ? 

8. 

*IJe spoke in a distinct enough pair of gloves: he is the servant 

manner to be heard by the of an old rich (2.) man." 

whole assembly." **The two first (3.) in the row are 

•Thomas is equipped with a new cherry-trees, the two others art 

(1.) pair of shoes, and a new pear-trees." 

(1.) " a pair of new shoes:' (2.) " rich old." (3.) Note I.— Rale VL 

K 13 



146 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Hiri.1! ii. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE IX. 

The indefinite article, a or an, belongs to nouns of the 
singular number. 



RULE III. 

The definite article, the, belongs to nouns of the singw 
lar or plural numbers. 

• The articles are often properly omitted : when used, they should be justly 
applied, according to their distinct nature ; as, " Gold is corrupting ; the sea 
is green ; a lion is bold." 

It is the nature of both the articles to determine or limit the thing spoken 
of. A determines it to be one single thing of the kind, leaving it still un- 
certain which ; the determines which it is, or, if many, which they are. 

The following passage will serve as an example of the different uses of a 
and the : and of the force of the substantive without any article : " Man was 
made for society, and ought to extend his good will to all men ; but a man 
will naturally entertain a more particular kindness for the men with whom 
he has the most frequent intercourse ; and enter into a still closer union 
with the man whose temper and disposition suit best with his own." 

As the articles are sometimes misapplied, it may be of some use io ex- 
hibit a few instances : " And I persecuted this way unto the death." The 
apostle does not mean any particular sort of death, but death in general : 
the definite article, therefore, is improperly used : it ought to be, "unto 
death," without any article. 

" When he, the Spirit of truth, is come, he will guide you into all truth ;" 
that is, according to this translation, "into all truth whatsoever, into truth 
of all kinds ;" — very different from the meaning of the evangelist, and from 
the original, "into all the truth;" that is, "into all evangelical truth, all 
truth necessary for you to know." 

" Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel ?" it ought to be " the wheel," 
used as an instrument for the particular purpose of torturing criminals. 
" The Almighty hath given reason to a man to be a light unto him :" it 
should rather be, " to- man" in general. " This day is salvation come to 
this house, forasmuch as he also is the son of Abraham:" it ought to be, 
" a son of Abraham." 

These remarks may serve to show the great importance of the proper use 
of the article, and the excellence of the English language in this respect ; 
which, by means of its two articles, does most precisely determine the 
extent of signification of common names. 

What is the nature of the articles ? What does the article a determine ? 
What the article the ? 
" The fire, the air, the earth, and the 

water, are four elements (1.) of 

the philosophers." 
* Reason was given to a man to 

control his passions." 
41 We have within us an intelligent 

principle, distinct from (2.) body 

and from matter." 
" A man is the noblest work of (3.) 

creation." 



" (4.) Wisest and best men some, 
times commit errors." 

M Beware of drunkenness ; it im 
pairs understanding ; waste; 
an estate ; destroys a reputa 
tion ; consumes the body ; and 
renders the (5.) man of the 
brightest parts the (5.) com- 
mon jest (6.) of the meanest 
clown." 



(1.) " Fire, air," &c— 
"creation." (4.) 



" the four ;" &c. 
The wisest." 



the body." 



(3.) " th* 
(6.) Rule XV. 



SYNTAX 147 

" He is a much better writer than a " Purity has its sea* in the heart, 

reader." but extends its influence over 

"The king- has conferred on him so much of outward conduct, 

the title of a duke." as to form the great and ma- 



tt 



There are some evils of life which terial part of a character." 

equally affect prince and peo- "The profligate man is seldom or 

pie." never found to be the good hus- 

* We must act our part with a con- band, the good father, or the 

stancy, though reward of our beneficent neighbor." 

constancy be (1.) distant." "True charity is not the meteor 

* We are placed here under a trial which occasionally glares, but 

of our virtue." the luminary which, in ita 

w The virtues like his are not easily orderly and regular course, 

acquired. Such qualities honor dispenses benignant influ. 

the nature of a man." ence." 

1. A nice distinction of the sense is sometimes made by the use or omis- 
sion of the article a. If I say, " He behaved with a little reverence," my 
meaning is positive. If I say, " He behaved with little reverence," my 
meaning is negative. And these two are by no means the same, or to be 
used in the same cases. By the former, I rather praise a person; by the 
latter, I dispraise him. For the sake of this distinction, which is a very 
useful one, we may better bear the seeming impropriety of the article a 
before nouns of number. When I say, " There were few men with him," 
I speak diminutively, and mean to represent them as inconsiderable : 
whereas, when I say, *■ There were a few men with him," I evidently 
intend to make the most of them. 

What is the difference in meaning between the expressions, " We be- 
haved with a little reverence," and, " We behaved with little reverence ?" 

1. 

" He has been much censured for " There were so many mitigating 

conducting himself with a lit- (3.) circumstances attending 

tie attention to his business." his misconduct, particularly 

So bold a breach of order called that (4.) of his open confes- 

for (2.) little severity in punish- sion, that he found (5.) few 

ing the offender." friends who were disposed to 

"His error was accompanied with interest themselves in his fa- 

so little contrition and candid vor." 

acknowledgment, that he found " As his misfortunes were the fruit 

a few persons to intercede for of his own obstinacy, a few per- 

him." sons pitied him." 

2. In general, it may be sufficient to prefix the article to the former of 
two words in the same construction ; though the French never fail to repeat 
it in this case. " There were many hours, both of the night and day, 
which he could spend, without suspicion, in solitary thought." It might 
have been, " oithe night and of the day." And, for the sake of emphasis, 
vye often repeat the article in a series of epithets. " He hoped that this 
title would secure him an ample and an independent authority." 

Is the article to be repeated before two words in the same construction ? 

2. 

^The fear of shame, (6.) the desire " He was fired with desire of doing 
of approbation, prevent many something, though he knew not 

bad actions." yet, with distinctness, either end 

** In this business he was influenced or means." 

by a just and (7.) generous prin- 
ciple." 

(I.) 464. (2.) "a little." (3.) 559. (4.) " that circumstance." Note I.— 

Rute XIV. (5.) " a few." 359. #.) " and the." (7.) " a generous." 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. In common conversation, and in familiar style, we frequently omit the 
articles, which might be inserted with propriety in writing, especially in a 
grave style. " At worst, time might be gained by this expedient." " At 
the worst" would have been better in this place. " Give me here John 
Baptist's head." There would have been more dignity in saying, " John 
the Baptist's head ;" or. " The head of John the Baptist.' ' 

The article the has sometimes a good effect in distinguishing a person by 
an epithet. " In the history of Henry the Fourth, by Father Daniel, we 
tire surprised at not finding him the great man." " I own I am often sur- 
prised that he should have treated so coldly a man so much the gentleman." 

This article is often elegantly put, after the manner of the French, for 
the pronoun possessive ; as, '* He looks him full in the face ;" that is, " in 
his face." "In his presence they were to strike the forehead on the 
ground ;" that is, " their foreheads. 11 

We sometimes, according to the French manner, repeat the same article, 
when the adjective, on account of any clause depending upon it, is put after 
the substantive. " Of all the considerable governments among the Alps, a 
commonwealth is a constitution the most adapted of any to the poverty of 
those countries." "With such a specious title as that of blood, which, 
with the multitude, is always a claim the strongest, and the most easily 
comprehended." " They are not the men in the nation the most difficult 
to be replaced." 

" At worst, time might be gained," &c. What word may properly be 
inserted in the beginning of this sentence ? What is the Note for it ? 

3. 

" At worst, I could but incur a gen- " At best, his gift was but a poor 
tie reprimand." offering, when we consider his 

estate." 

RITIiE Z. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE X. 

The possessive case is governed by the following noun. 

When the annexed substantive signifies the same thing as the first, there 
is no variation of case ; as, " George, king of Great Britain, elector of 
Hanover," &c. ; " Pompey contended with Caesar, the greatest general 
of his time;" "Religion, the support of adversity, adorns prosperity." 
Nouns thus circumstanced are said to be in apposition to each other. The 
interposition of a relative and verb will sometimes break the construction •, 
as, " Pompey contended with Caesar, who was the greatest general of his 
time." Here the word general is in the nominative case, according to Rule 
XV., or Note 4, under Rule VIII. 

The preposition of, joined to a substantive, is not always equivalent to the 
possessive case. It is only so, when the expression can be conver ed into 
the regular form of the possessive case. We can say, "the reward of 
virtue," and, " virtue's reward ;" but though it is proper to say, " a crown 
of gold," we cannot convert the expression into the possessive case, and 
say, "gold's crown." 

Substantives govern pronouns as well as nouns, in the possessive case ; 
as, " Every tree is known by its fruit ;" " Goodness brings its reward ;" 
•' That desk is mine. 11 

The genitive (1.) its is often improperly used for His or it is ; as, "Its 
my book ;" instead of, " It is my book." 

The pronoun his, when detached from the noun to which it relates, is to be 
considered, not as a possessive pronoun, but as the genitive case of the per- 
uonal pronoun; as, " This composition is his. 11 " Whose book is that?" 
"His. 1 * It' we used the noun itself, we should say, " This composition is 

(1.) Or possessive. 



SYNTAX. M9 

John's." " Whose book is that ?" " Eliza's." The position will be still 
more evident, when we consider that both the pronouns in the following 
sentences must have a similar construction: "Is it her or his honor that is 
tarnished ?" " It is not hers, but his." 

Sometimes a substantive in the genitive or possessive case stands alone, 
the latter one by which it is governed being understood; as, "I called af 
the bookseller's," that is, " at the bookseller's shop. 11 

11 Religion, the support of adversity, adorns prosperity." What is said of 
the nouns religion, and support, in respect to each other ? When is the pre* 
position of joined to a substantive equivalent to the possessive case ? Givi 
an example. 
" My ancestors virtue is not mine." " A mothers tenderness, and a 

(1.) fathers care are natures gifts 

" His brothers offence will not con- for mans advantage." 

demn him." "A mans manners' frequently in< 

" I will not destroy the city for ten fluence his fortune." 

sake." "Wisdoms precepts' form iVe 

"Nevertheless, Asa his heart (2.) good mans interest and hap- 

was perfect with the Lord." piness." 



" They slew Varus, he that was " They slew Varus, who was him 
mentioned before." that I mentioned before." 

1. If several nouns come together in the genitive (3.) case, the apostrophe 
with s is annexed to the last, and understood to the rest ; as, " John and 
Eliza's books ;" " This was my father, mother and uncle's advice." But 
when any words intervene, perhaps on account of the increased pause, the 
sign of the possessive should be annexed to each ; as, " They are John's 
as well as Eliza's books ;" " I had the physician's, the surgeon's and the 
apothecary's assistance." 

11 John's and Eliza's books." Will you correct this sentence, and give 
the Rule for it ? 

1. 
" It was the men's, (4.) women's " This measure gained the king, 
(5.) and children's lot to suffer as well as the people's appro- 

great calamities." bation." 

M Peters, John's and Andrew's " Not only the counsel's and at- 
occupation, was that uf fisher- torney's but the judge's opinion 

men." also, favored his cause." 

2. In poetry, the additional s is frequently omitted, but the apostrophe re- 
tained, in the same manner as in substantives of the plural number ending 
in s ; as, " The wrath of Peleus' son." This seems not so allowable in 
prose, which the following erroneous example will demonstrate: " Moses' 
minister ;" " Phinehas' wife ;" " Festus came into Felix' room ;" " These 
answers were made to the witness' questions." But in cases which would 
grve too much of the hissing sound, or increase the difficulty of pronuncia- 
tion, the omission takes place even in prose; as, "For righteousnesa r 
sake ;'' " For conscience' sake." 

Is the additional « ever omitted ? Give an example. 

2. 

" And he cast himself down at " If ye suffer for righteoueness'a 
Jesus feet." sake, happy are ye." 

"Moses rod was turned into a "Ye should be sub,:?* for con. 
serpent." science's sake." 

"For Herodias sake, his brother 
Philips wife." 

(1.) Rule I. (2.) M Jlsa's heart." (3.) Or possessive. (40 "Men" is here 

in the possessive case, the apostrophe being understood therefore apply Rule L 
(5.) " Men, women ;" or M It was the lot of," &c. 

13* 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Little explanatory circumstances are particularly awkward between a 
genitive case and the word which usually follows it; as, " She began to 
extol the farmer's, as she called him, excellent understanding." It ought 
to be, " the excellent understanding of the farmer, as she called him." 

" She began to extol the farmer's, as she called him, excellent under- 
standing." Will you correct this sentence, and give the Rule for it ? 

3. 

" They very justly condemned the " They implicitly obeyed the pr»- 
prodigal's, as he was called, tector's, as they called him 9 

senseless and extravagant con- imperious mandates." 

duct." (1.) 

4. When a sentence consists of terms signifying a name and an office, or 
of any expressions by which one part is descriptive or explanatory of the 
other, it may occasion some doubt to which of them the sign of the genitive 
case should be annexed ; or whether it should be subjoined to them both. 
Thus, some would say, "I left the parcel at Smith's the bookseller;" others, 
"at Smith the bookseller's ;" and perhaps others, "at Smith's the book- 
seller's." The first of these forms is most agreeable to the English idiom ; 
and if the addition consists of two or more words, the case seems to be less 
dubious; as, "I left the parcel at Smith's, the bookseller and stationer." But 
as this subject requires a little further explanation, to make it intelligible to 
the learners, we shall add a few observations tending to unfold its principles. 

A phrase in which the words are so connected and dependent, as to admit 
of no pause before the conclusion, necessarily requires the genitive sign at 
or near the end of the phrase ; as, " Whose prerogative is it ?" "It is the 
king of Great Britain's;" "That is the duke of Bridgewater's canal;" 
" The bishop of LandafT's excellent book;" " The Lord Mayor of Lon- 
don's authority ;" " The captain of the guard's house." 

When words in apposition follow each other in quick succession, it seems 
also most agreeable to our idiom, to give the sign of the genitive a similar 
situation ; especially if the noun which governs the genitive be expressed ; 
as, " The emperor Leopold's ;" " Dionysius the tyrant's^" "For David 
my servant's sake;" " Give me John the Baptist's head;" "Paul the 
apostle's advice." But when a pause is proper, and the governing noun not 
expressed ; and when the latter part of the sentence is extended ; it appears 
to be requisite that the sign should be applied to the first genitive, and un- 
derstood to the other; as, "I reside at lord Stormont's, my old patron and 
benefactor;" "Whose glory did he emulate? He emulated Caesar's, the 
greatest general of antiquity." In the following sentences, it would be very 
awkward to place the sign either at the end of each of the clauses, or at the 
end of the latter one alone: " These psalms are David's, the king, priest, 
and prophet of the Jewish people ;" " We staid a month at lord Lyttleton's, 
the ornament of his country, and the friend of every virtue." The sign of 
the genitive case may very properly be understood at the end of these mem- 
bers, an ellipsis at the latter part of sentences being a common construction 
in our language ; as the learner will see by one or two examples : " They 
wished to submit, but he did not;" that is, " he did not wish to submit" 
** He said it was their concern, but not his ;" that is, not Jris concern." 

If we annex the sign of the genitive to the end of the last clause only, we 
shall perceive that a resting-place is wanted, and that the connecting circum- 
stance is placed too remotely, to be either perspicuous or agreeable ; as, 
" Whose glory did ho emulate ? He emulated Csesar, the greatest general of 
antiquity's ;" " These psalms are David, the king, priest, and prophet of the 
Jewish people's." It is much better to say, "This is Paul's advice, the Chris- 
tian hero, and great apostle of the gentiles," than " This is Paul the Christian 
hero, and great apostle of the gentiles' advice." On the other hand, the ap- 
plication of the genitive sign to both or all of the nouns in apposition, would 
be generally harsh and displeasing, and perhaps in some cases incorrect ; 
as, "The emperor's Leopold's ;" "King's George's;" "Charles's the 

(J.) '* the senseless" &x. " of the prodigal, as he was called." 



SYNTAX. 151 

Second's;" " The parcel was left at Smith's the bookseller's and station- 
er's." The rules which we have endeavored to elucidate will prevent the 
inconvenience of both these modes of expression ; and they appear to be 
simple, perspicuous, and consistent with the idiom of the language. 

"Vyhich is most agreeable to the English idiom, to say, " Smith's the 
bookseller," or, " Smith the bookseller's ?" When the words are connect- 
ed and dependent, where is the genitive (1.) sign to be placed ? 

When words in apposition follow each other in quick succession, where 
should the sign of the genitive be placed ? What effect is perceived if we 
innex the sign of the genitive to the end of the last clause only of the sen- 
^ence ? Give an example. What is the effect of applying the genitive sign 
to both or all the nouns in apposition ? Give an example. 

4. 

* I bought the knives at Johnson's " I will not for David's thy father's 

(2.) the cutler's:' (3.) sake." 

" The silk was purchased at Brown's .. n . , r ., 

the mercer's and haberdasher's:' He fK t0 ? k "^ at the governor, 

"Lord Feversham the general's the king s representative s. ' 

tent." (4.) " Whose (5.) works are these ? 

** This palace had been the grand They are Cicero, the most elo- 

sultan's Mahomet's." quent of men's." 

5. The English genitive has often an unpleasant sound ; so that we daily 
make more use of the particle of, to express the same relation. There is 
something awkward in the following sentences, in which this method has 
not been taken: " The general, in the army's name, published a declara- 
tion ;" " The commons' vote ;" " The lords' house ;" " Unless he is very 
ignorant of the kingdom's condition." It were certainly better to say, " In 
the name of the army ;" " The votes of the commons ;" " The house of 
lords ;" " The condition of the kingdom." It is also rather harsh to use 
two English genitives with the same substantive ; as, " Whom he acquaint- 
ed with the pope's and the king's pleasure." " The pleasure of tne pope 
and the king," would have been better. 

We sometimes meet with three substantives dependent on one another, 
and connected by the preposition of applied to each of them ; as, " The 
severity of the distress of the son of the king, touched the nation;" but 
this mode of expression is not to be recommended. It would be better to 
say, " The severe distress of the king's son touched the nation." We 
have a scriking instance of this laborious mode of expression, in the follow- 
ing sentence : " Of some of the books of each of these classes of litera- 
ture, a catalogue will be given at the end of the work." 

"In the army's name." How may this expression be altered for the 
better ? 

5. 

64 The world's government is not " It was necessary to have both the 
left to chance." (6.) physician's and the surgeon's 

" She married my son's wife's bro- advice." (9.) 

ther." (7.) " The extent of the prerogative of 

"This is my wife's brother's part- the king of England is suf 

ner's house." (8.) ficiently ascertained." 

6, In some cases, we use both the genitive termination and the preposition 
of ; as, " It is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's." Sometimes, indeed, un- 
less we throw the sentence into another form, this method is absolutely neces- 
sary, in order to distinguish the sense, and to give the idea of property, strict. 

(1.) Or possessive. (2.) " Johnson's shop.'" Rule I. (3.) " cutler.'" See 

Note I. under this Rule. (4.) " The tent of lord," &c. (5.) 431. (0.) " The 

government of the world." (7.) " the brother of my son's icifc." (8.) " This 

house belongs to the partner of my wife's brother." (!).) " the advice both of." 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ly so called, which is the most important of the relations expressed by t!ie 
genitive case ; for the expressions, " This picture of my fric«nd," and, '* This 
picture of my friend's," suggest very different ideas. The latter only is that 
of property, in the strictest sense. The idea would, doubtless, be conveyed 
in a better manner, by saying, " This picture, belonging to my friend." 

When this double genitive, as some grammarians term it, is not necessary 
to distinguish the sense, and especially in a grave style, it is generally omit- 
ted. Except to prevent ambiguity, it seems to be allowable only in cases 
which suppose the existence of a plurality of subjects of the same kind. la 
the expressions, " A subject of the emperor's ;" " A sentiment of my bro- 
ther's ;" more than one subject, and one sentiment, are supposed to belong 
to the possessor. But when this plurality is neither intimated, nor neces- 
sarily supposed, the double genitive, except as before mentioned, should not 
( be used; as, " This house of the governor is very commodious;" " The 
crown of the king was stolen;" "That privilege of the scholar was never 
abused." But, after all that can be said for this double genitive, as it ia 
termed, some grammarians think that it would be better to avoid the use 
of it altogether, and to give the sentiment another form of expression. 

Are there any cases in which we use both the genitive termination and the 
preposition of? Give an example. Is this double genitive ever omitted ? 



M That picture of the king's does " This estate of the corporation's is 
not much resemble (1.) him." much encumbered." 

" These pictures of the king (2.) " That is the eldest son of the king 
were sent to him from Italy." of England's." 

7. When an entire clause of a sentence, beginning with a participle of the 
present tense, is used as one name, or to express one idea or circumstance, 
the noun on which it depends may be put in the genitive case : thus, instead 
of saying, "What is the reason of this person dismissing his servant so 
hastily ?" that is, " What is the reason of this person in dismissing his ser- 
vant so hastily?" we may say, and perhaps ought to say, "What is the 
reason of this person's dismissing of his servant so hastily ?" just as we 
say, "What is the reason of this person's hasty dismission of his servant?" 
So also we say, " I remember it being reckoned a great exploit ;" or, more 
properly, " I remember its being reckoned," &c. The following sentence 
is correct and proper: " Much will depend on the pupil's composing, but 
more on his reading frequently." It would not be accurate to say, " Much 
will depend on the pupil composing " &c. We also properly say, " This 
will be the effect of the pupil's composing frequently ;" instead of, " of the 
pupil composing frequently." 

" What is the reason of this person dismissing his servant so hastily ?" 
Will you correct this sentence, and give the rule for it ? 

7. 

_>6 What (3.) can be the cause of the the Hollanders their throwing 

parliament neglecting so im- off the monarchy of Spain, 

portant a business." and their withdrawing entire- 

"Much depends on this rule being ly their allegiance to that 

observed." crown." 

**The time of William making " If we alter the situation of any of 

the experiment, at length ar- the words, we shall presently 

rived." be sensible of the melody suffer- 

6 'It is very probable that this as- ing." 

sembly was called, to clear "Such will ever be the effect of 

some doubt which the king youth associating with vicious 

had about the lawfulness of companions." 

*«■ i — . 1 . » 

(1.) 586. (2.) Or, " These pictures belonging to the king," &c. (3 ) Rule XV. 



SYNTAX. 153 

RULE VIZI. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE XL 

Active transitive verbs govern the objective case. 

In English, the nominative case, denoting the subject, usually goes before 
the verb ; and the objective case, denoting the object, follows the verb ac- 
tive ; and it is the order that determines the case in nouns ; as, " Alexander 
conquered the Persians." But the pronoun, having a proper form for each 
of those cases, is sometimes, when it is in the objective case, placed before 
tire verb ; and, when it is in the nominative case, follows the object and 
verb ; as " Whom ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you." 

This position of the pronoun sometimes occasions its proper case and 

fovernment to be neglected ; as in the following instances : " Who should 
esteem more than the wise and good?" " By the character of those who 
you choose for your friends, your own is likely to be formed." Those are 
the persons who he thought true to his interests." " Who should I see the 
other day but my old friend?" "Whosoever the court favors." In all 
these places, it ought to be whom, the relative being governed in the objective 
case by the verbs esteem, choose, thought, &c. " He, who, under all proper 
circumstances, has the boldness to speak truth, choose for thy friend;" it 
should be "him who," &c. 

Verbs neuter and intransitive do not act upon, or govern, nouns and pro- 
nouns. "He sleeps, 11 "they muse, 11 &c, are not transitive. They are, 
therefore, not followed by an objective case, specifying the object of an ac- 
tion. But when this case, or an object of action, comes after such verbs, 
though it may carry the appearance of being governed by them, ifcis affected 
by a preposition or some other word understood; as, "He resided many 
years [that is, for or during many years] in that street ;" " He rode several 
miles [that is, for or through the space of several miles] on that day ;" 
"He lay an hour [that is, during an hour] in great torture." In the 
phrases, "To dream a dream," "To live a virtuous life," "To run a 
race," " To walk the horse," " To dance the child," the verbs certainly 
assume a transitive form, and may not, in these cases, be improperly de- 
nominated transitive verbs. 

How is the nominative case usually known in English ? How the objec- 
tive ? Do neuter verbs govern nouns and pronouns ? In the phrase, " He 
resided many years in that street," how do you parse years ? When verbs 
naturally neuter assume a transitive form, what may they then be called ? 
"They who opulence has made "She that is idle and mischievous, 
proud, and who luxury has reprove sharply." 

corrupted, cannot relish the ** Who did they send to him on su 
simple pleasures of nature." important an errand ?" 

* You have reason to dread his u That is the friend (4.) who yoy 

wrath, which one day v l.) will must receive cordially, and who. 

destroy ye both." you cannot esteem too highly." 

•* Who have I reason to love so (2 ) " He invited my brother and I t« 
much (2.) as this friend (3.) of see and examine (3.) his lir 

my youth ?" brary." 

* Ye, who were dead, hath he " He who committed the offence* 

quickened." you should correct, not I, wha 

** Who did they entertain so free- am innocent." 

ly?" "We should fear and obey the 

* The man who he raised from ob- Author of our being, even He 

scurity, is dead." who has pow:er to reward of 

u Ye only have I known of all the punish us forever." 

families of the earth." " They who he had most (5.) in. 

" He and they we know, but who jured, he had the greatest reason. 

(4.) are you ?" to love." 



(10 Rule XXII. (20 Adverb. (3.) Rule XL (40 Rule XV. (50 678. 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. Some writers, however, use certain neuter or intransitive verbs as if 
they were transitive, putting after them the objective case, agreeably to the 
French construction of reciprocal verbs ; but this custom is so foreign to the 
idiom of the English tongue, that it ought not to be adopted or imitated. 
The following are some instances of this practice : " Repenting him of his 
design." " The king soon found reason to repent him of his provoking 
such dangerous enemies." " The popular lords did not fail to enlarge 
themselves on the subject." " The nearer his successes approached him to 
the throne." " Go, flee thee away into the land of Judah." " I think it 
by no means a fit and decent thing to vie charities," &c. " They have 
spent their whole time and pains to agree the sacred with the profane 
chronology." 

" Repenting him of his design." Will you repeat the note which shows 
j&is sentence to be incorrect ? 

1. 

84 Though he now takes pleasure in before him, the humbler he 

them, he will one day (1.) re- grew." 

pent him (2.) of indulgences so " It will be very difficult to agree 

unwarrantable." his conduct with (3.) the prin- 

"The nearer his virtues approach- ciples he professes." 

ed him to the great example 

2. Active-transitive verbs are sometimes as improperly made neuter or 
intransitive ; as, "I miist premise with three circumstances ;" " Those who 
think to ingratiate with him by calumniating me." 

" I must premise with three circumstances." Will you correct this sen- 
tence, and give the rule for it ? 

2. 

"To ingratiate (4.) with some by " I shall premise with two or three 
traducing others, makes a base general observations." 

and despicable mind." 

3. The neuter verb (5.) is varied like the active ; but, having, in some 
degree, the nature of the passive, it admits, in many instances, of the pas- 
sive form, retaining still the neuter signification, chiefly in such verbs as 
signify some sort of motion, or change of place or condition; as, "I am 
come;" "I was gone;" "I am grown;" " I was fallen." The following 
examples, however, appear to be erroneous, in giving the neuter verbs a 
passive form, instead of an active one : " The rule of our holy religion, from 
which we are infinitely swerved." " The whole obligation of that law and 
covenant was also ceased." " Whose number was now amounted to three 
hundred." " This mareschal, upon some discontent, was entered into a 
conspiracy against his master." " At the end of a compaign, when half 
the men are deserted or killed." It should be, "have swerved," "had 
ceased," &c. 

" I am come." Why should not this be " I have come" ? 

3. 

* If sucK mnxims and such prac- "The mighty rivals are novo at 
tices (6.) prevail, what has length agreed." 
(7.) become of decency and " The influence of his corrupt ex- 
virtue ?" ample was (8.) then entirely 

*} have come, according to the ceased." 

time proposed; but I have "He was entered into the con 

fallen upon an evil hour." nection before the consequences 

were considered." 

» ■ — ■ 

(1 ) Rule XXII. C2.) " repent of." (3.) " to make agree with," &.C 

(A.) " ingratiate ourselves.'" (5.) By neuter and active, Mr. Murray here means 

What in this work are styled intransitive and transitive verbs. v '6.)ftule XI. 

|7.) *' is become." (8.) '* had " 



SYNTAX. 155 

Rule XV. When two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, 
signifying the same thing, come together, they are put by appo- 
sition in the same case. 

frCr The examples which follow may be corrected by this Rule or the follow- 
ing Note. 

4. The verb to be, through all its variations, has the same case after it as 
\ hat which next precedes it. "/ am he whom they invited." ** It may be, 
(or, it might have been) he, but it cannot be, (or, could not haVe been) I. 
" It is impossible to be they." " It seems to have been he who conducted 
himself so wisely." " It appeared to be she that transacted the business." 
" I understood it to be him." " I believe it to have been them." " We £t 
first took it to be her ; but were afterwards convinced that it was not she" 
" He is not the person who it seemed he was." " He is really the person 
who he appeared to be." " She is not now the woman whom they repre- 
sented her to have been." "Whom do you fancy him to be?" By these 
examples, it appears that this substantive verb has no government of case ; 
but serves, in all its forms, as a conductor to the cases ; so that the two 
cases which, in the construction of the sentence, are the next before and 
after it, must always be alike. Perhaps this subject will be more intelligible 
to the learner, by observing, that the words in the cases preceding and fol- 
lowing the verb to be, may be said to be in apposition to each other. Thus, 
in the sentence, " I understood it to be him," the words it and him are in 
apposition ; that is, " they refer to the same thing, and are in the same case." 

The following sentences contain deviations from the rule, and exhibit the 
pronoun in a wrong case. " It might have been him, but there is no proof 
of it." " Though I was blamed, it could not have been me." " I saw one 
whom I took to be she" " She is the person, who I understood it to have 
been." " Who do you think me to be ?" " Whom do men say that I am ?" 
" And whom think ye that I am ?" 

Passive verbs, which signify naming, &c, have the same case before and 
after them; as, " He was called Caesar;" "She was named Penelope;" 
" Homer is styled the prince of poets ;" "James was created a duke;" 
" The general was saluted emperor ;" " The professor was appointed tutor 
to the prince." 

"I am him whom they invited." Will you correct this sentence, and 
give the rule for it ? 

4. 

* " Well may you be afraid; it is (3.) who conducted the business ; 

him indeed." but I am certain it was not him." 

" I would act the same part, if I " He so much resembled my bro- 

were him, (1.) or in his situa- ther, that, at first sight, I took 

tion." it to be he." 

"Search the Scriptures, for in them " After all their professions, is it 

ye think ye have eternal life ; possible to be them ?" 

and they are them which testify u It could not have been her, for 

of me." she always behaves discreet- 

II Be composed : it is me : you have ly." 

no cause for fear." " If it was not him, who do yoa 

II I cannot tell who has befriended imagine it to have been ?" 
me, unless it is him from whom " Who do you think him to be V 

I have received many benefits." " Whom do the people say that w* 
ri I know not whether it were them are ?" 

* When the verb to be is understood, it has the same case, before and after it, aa 
when it is expressed; a^, " He seems the leader of the party ;" " He shall eontimm 
steward ;" " They appointed me executor ;" " I supposed him a man of learning ;' 
— that, is, " He seems to be the leader of the party," &x. Nouns in apposition are 
in the same case ; as, " We named the man Pompey ;" "They may term Charles a 
visionary, but they cannot call him a deceiver ;" " Hortensiusdied a martyr;" " The 
gentle Siilney lived the shepherd's friend." 

(1.) Rule XV. (2.) M they were the persons:' 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. The auxiliary let governs the objective case ; as, " Let him beware ;' 
•' Let us judge candidly ;" " Let them not presume ;" " Let George study 
his lesson." 

" Let us judge candidly." In what case is us ? What is the rule ? 

5. 
"Whatever (1.) others do, let (2.) "Let them and we unite to oppose 
thou and / act wisely." this growing (3.) evil." 

RULE XII. 

Corresponding- with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE XII. 

The infinitive mood may be governed by verbs, participles? 
adjectives, nouns and pronouns. 

The preposition to, though generally used before the latter verb, is some- 
times properly omitted ; as, " I heard him say it ;" instead of, " to say it.** 

The verbs which have commonly other verbs following them, in the 
infinitive mood, without the sign to, are, bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, 
feel, and also let, not used as an auxiliary ; and perhaps a few others ; as, 
44 I bade him do it ;" " Ye dare not do it ;" " I saw him do it ;" " I heard 
him say it ;" " Thou lettest him go." 

Will you name the verbs which have commonly other verbs in the infini- 
tive mood- after them, without the sign to ? 

"It is better (4.) live on a lit- "I need not to solicit him to do a 
tie, (5.) than outlive a good kind action." 

deal." "I dare not to proceed so hastily, 

" You ought not walk too hastily." lest I should give offence." 

"I wish him not wrestle with his "I have seen some young persons 
happiness." to conduct themselves very dis- 

creetly." 

1. In the following passages, the word to, the sign of the infinitive mood, 
where it is distinguished by Italic characters, is superfluous and improper : 
" I have observed some satirists to use," &c. " To see so many to make 
so little conscience of so great a sin." " It cannot but be a delightful spec- 
tacle to God and angels, to see a young person, besieged by powerful temp- 
tations on every side, to acquit himself gloriously, and resolutely to hold out 
against the most violent assaults ; to behold one in the prime and flower of 
his age, that is courted by pleasures and honors, by the devil, and all the 
bewitching vanities of the world, to reject all these, and to cleave stead- 
fastly unto God." 

This mood has also been improperly used in the following places : " I am 
not like other men, to envy the talents I cannot reach." " Grammarians have 
denied, or at least doubted, them to be genuine." " That all our doings may 
be ordered by thy governance, to do always what is righteous in thy sight." 

The infinitive is frequently governed by adjectives, substantives, and par- 
ticiples ; as, " He is eager to learn ;" " She is worthy to be loved ;" " They 
have a desire to improve ;" " Endeavoring to persuade." 

The infinitive mood has much of the nature of a substantive, expressing 
the action itself which the verb signifies, as the participle has the nature of 
an adjective. Thus the infinitive mood does the office of a substantive in 
different cases : — in the nominative ; as, ** To play is pleasant :" — in the 
objective ; as, " Boys love to play ;" " For to will is present with me , 
but to perform that which is good, I find not." 

The infinitive mood is often made absolute, or used independently on the 
rest of the sentence, supplying the place of the conjunction that with the 
potential mood ; as, " To confess the truth, I was in .fault ;" " To begin 
with the first ;" " To proceed ;" " To conclude ;" — that is, " That I may 
confess," &c 

(1 ) Rule VIII. (2.) Imp. Rule VI. (3.) 559. (4.) " to liver Rule XI* 

(5.) Noun. 



SYNTAX. 157 

" I have observed some satirists to use," &c. What is incorrect in this 
sentence ? 

In the expression, " He is eager to learn," will you parse to learnt What 
is the rule? (1.) "To play is pleasant." Will you parse to play, and give 
a rule for it ? (1.) " To confess the truth, I was in fault." How is to con- 
fess parsed ? What is the rule for it ? (2.) 

1. 

* It is a great support to virtue, " To see (6.) young persons who are 
when we see a good mind to courted by health and pleasure, 
maintain (3.) its patience and to resist all the allurements 
tranquillity, under injuries and of vice, and to steadily pursue 
affliction, and to cordially for- virtue and knowledge, is cheer- 
give its oppressors." ing and delightful to every good 
It is the difference of their con- mind." 

duct, which makes us to ap- " They acted with so much reserve, 

prove the one, and to reject the that some persons doubted them 

other." to be sincere." (7.) 

» We should not be like many per- " And the multitude wondered, when 

sons, to (4.) depreciate the vir- they saw the lame to walk, and 

tues we (5.) do not possess." the blind to see." (8.) 

BULE XXVI. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 

RULE XITI. 

In the use of words and phrases which, in point of time, 
relate to each other, a due regard to that relation 
should be observed. Instead of saying, " The Lord 
hath given, and the Lord hath taken away," we 
should say, " The Lord gave, and the Lord hath 
taken away." Instead of, "I remembei the family 
more than twenty years," it should be, "I have re- 
membered the family more than twenty years." 

it is not easy to give particular rules for the use of the moods and tenses 
of verbs with respect to one another, so that they may be proper and con- 
sistent. The best rule that can be given, is this very general one — " To 
observe what the sense necessarily requires." It may, however, be of use 
to give a few examples of irregular construction. " The last week I in- 
tended to have written" is a very common phrase ; the infinitive being in 
the past time, as well as the verb which it follows. But it is certainly wrong ; 
for how long soever it now is since I thought of writing, to write was then 
present co me, and must still be considered as present, when I bring back 
that time, and the thoughts of it. It ought, therefore, to be, " The last week 
1 intended to write." The following sentences are also erroneous: "I 
cannot excuse the remissness of those whose business it should have been, 
as it certainly was their interest, to have interposed their good offices." 
" There were two circumstances which made it necessary for them to have 
lost no time." " Historical painters would have found it difficult to have in- 
vented such a species of beings." They ought to be, to interpose, to lose, 
to invent. "On the morrow, because he would have known the certainty 
wherefore he was accused of the Jews, he loosed him." It ought to be, 
"because he would know," or, rather, ' * being willing to know." " The 

f 1.) Rule XII. (2.) Note XII. LVIII. (3.) For to maintain read maintain. 

(4.) "who." (5.)" they" (6.) Note XIII. (7.) " their sincerity." 

i(B.) " persons who had been lame, walking 1 ; and those who had been blind, seeing" 

14 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

blind man said unto him, Lord, that I might receive my sight." " If by 
any means I might attain unto the resurrection of the dead." May, in both 
places, would have been better. "From this biblical knowledge, he ap- 
pears to study the Scriptures with great attention ;" " to have studied," &c. 
" I feared that I should have lost it, before I arrived at the city ;" •« should 
lose it." *' I had rather walk ;" it should be, " I would rather walk." " It 
would have afforded me no satisfaction, if I could perform it ;" it should be, 
" if I could have performed it." 

To preserve consistency in the time of verbs, we must recollect that, in 
the subjunctive mood, the present and imperfect tenses sometimes carrj 
with them a future signification ; and that the auxiliaries should and would^ 
in the imperfect times, are used to express the present or future, as well as 
the past. 

" I intended to have written." Will you point out the incorrectness of 
this sentence, and give a rule for it ? 

"The next new year's day I shall hold on all the opportunities, 

be (1.) at school three years." which the imprudence, weak- 

" And he that was dead (2.) sat up, ness, or necessities of princes 

and began to speak." afford it, to extend its author- 

"I should be obliged to him, if ity." 

he will gratify me in that par- " Fierce as he moved, his silver 

ticular." shafts resound." 

•*And the multitude wondered, "They maintained that scripture 

when they saw the dumb to conclusion, that all mankind 

speak, the maimed to be whole, rise from one head." 

the lame walk, and the blind "John will earn his wages when 

seeing." (3.) his service is completed." 

** I have compassion on the mul- " Ye will not come unto me that 

titude, because they continue ye might have life." 

with me now three days." M Be that as it will, he cannot justi- 

14 In the treasury belonging to the fy his conduct." 

cathedral in this city is pre- " I have been at London a year, 
served (4.) with the greatest and seen the king last sum- 
veneration, for upwards of six mer." 

hundred years, a dish which "After we visited London, we re- 

they pretend to be made of turned, content and thankful, 

emerald." to our retired and peaceful 

"The court of Rome gladly laid habitation." 

1. It is proper further to observe, that verbs of the infinitive mood in the 
following form — to write, to be writing, and to be written — always denote 
something contemporary with the time of the governing verb, or subsequent 
to it ; but when verbs of that mood are expressed as follows — to have been 
writing, to have written, and to have been written — they always denote some- 
thing antecedent to the time of the governing verb. This remark is thought 
to be of importance ; for, if duly attended to, it will, in most cases, be suf- 
ficient to direct us in the relative application of these tenses. 

The following sentence is properly and analogically expressed: "I found 
him better than I expected to find him." " Expected to have found him," 
is irreconcilable alike to grammar and to sense. Indeed, all verbs expressive 
of hope, desire, intention, or command, must invariably be followed by the 
present, and not the perfect of the infinitive. Every person would perceive 
an error in this expression — " It is long since I commanded him to have don\. 
it ;" yet "expected to have found ," is no better. It is as clear that the 
finding must be posterior to the expectation, as that the obedience must be 
posterior to the command. 

In the sentence which follows, the verb is with propriety put in the perfect 
tense of the infinitive mood : "It would have afforded me great pleasure, as 

(1.) " shall have been." (2.) " had been dead." (3.) See the last example undel 
the preceding Rule. (4.) " a dish has been preserved." 



SYNTAX. 159 

uften as I reflected upon it, to have been the messenger of such intelligence." 
As the message, in this instance, was antecedent to the pleasure, and not 
contemporary with it, the verb expressive of the message must denote that 
antecedence, by being in the perfect of the infinitive. If the message and 
the pleasure had been referred to as contemporary, the subsequent verb 
would, with equal propriety, have been put in the present of the infinitive ; 
as, " It would have afforded me great pleasure, to be the messenger of such 
intelligence." In the former instance, the phrase in question is equivalent 
to these words — " If I had been the messenger;" in the latterjnstance, to 
this expression — " Being the messenger.' 

It is proper to inform the learner, that, in order to express the past time 
with the defective verb ought, the perfect of the infinitive must always be 
used ; as, " He ought to have done it." When we use this verb, this is the 
anly possible way to distinguish the past from the present. 

In support of the positions advanced under this rule, we can produce the 
sentiments of eminent grammarians ; amongst whom are Lowth and Camp- 
bell. But there are some writers on grammar who strenuously maintain, 
that the governed verb in the infinitive ought to be in the past tense, when 
the verb which governs it is in the past time. Though this cannot be ad- 
mitted, in the instances which are controverted under this rule, or in any in- 
stances of a similar nature ; yet there can be no doubt that, in many cases, 
in which the thing referred to preceded the governing verb, it would be pro- 
per and allowable. We may say, " From a conversation I once had with 
him, he appeared to have studied Homer with great care and judgment." It 
would be proper also to say, "From his conversation, he appears to have 
studied Homer with great care and judgment ;" " That unhappy man is sup- 
posed to have died by violence." These examples are not only consistent 
with our rule, but they confirm and illustrate it. It is the tense of the 
governing verb only, that marks what is called the absolute time ; the tense 
of the verb governed marks solely its relative time, with respect to the other. 

To assert, as some writers do, that verbs in the infinitive mood have no 
tenses, no relative distinctions of present, past and future, is inconsistent 
with just grammatical views of the subject. That these verbs associate with 
verbs in all the tenses, is no proof of their having no peculiar time of their 
own. Whatever period the governing verb assumes, whether present, past, 
or future, the governed verb in the infinitive always respects that period, 
and its time is calculated from it. Thus, the time of the infinitive may be 
before, after, or the same as, the time of the governing verb, according as 
the thing signified by the infinitive is supposed to be before, after, or present 
with the thing denoted by the governing verb. It is, therefore, with great 
propriety, that tenses are assigned to verbs of the infinitive mood. The 
point of time from which they are computed, is of no consequence ; since 
present, past, and future, are completely applicable to them. 

We shall conclude our observations under this rule, by remarking, that, 
though it is often proper to use the perfect of the infinitive after the govern- 
ing verb, yet there are particular cases in which it would be better to give 
the expression a different form. Thus, instead of saying, M I wish to have 
written to him sooner," " I then wished to have written to him sooner," 
" He will one day wish to have written sooner;" it would be more per- 
spicuous and forcible, as well as more agreeable to the practice of good 
writers, to say, " I wish that I had written to him sooner," " I then wish- 
ed that I had written to him sooner," " He will one day wish that he had 
written sooner." Should the justness of these strictures be admitted, there 
would still be numerous occasions for the use of the past infinitive ; as we 
may perceive by a few examples : " It would ever afterwards have been a 
source of pleasure, to have found him wise and virtuous." "To have 
deferred his repentance longer, would have disqualified him for repenting 
at all." " They will then see, that to have faithfully performed their duty, 
would have been their greatest consolation." 

" I expected to have found him." Will you correct this sentence, and s;ir<! 
a rule for it ? What tense of the infinitive must be used to express past time 
with the defective verb ought ? Give an example. Is it proper ever to us* 
the perlect of the infinitive after the governing verb ? Give an example. 



160 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



1. 



14 1 purpose to go to London in a 
few months, and after 1 shall 
finish (1.) my business there, 
to proceed (2.) to America." 

* These prosecutions of William 

seem to be the most iniquitous 
measures pursued by the court 
during the time that the use of 
parliaments was suspended." 

* From the little conversation I had 

with hi in, he appeared to have 
been a man of letters." 

* I always intended to have reward- 

ed my son according to his 
merit." 
- It would, on reflection, have given 
me great satisfaction, to relieve 
him from that distressed situa- 
tion." 

* It required so much care, that I 

thought I should have lost it 
before I reached home." 

* We have done no more than it 

was our duty to have done." 
H He would have assisted one of his 
friends, if he could do it with, 
out injuring the other ; but as 
that could not have been done, 
he avoided all interference." 
u Must it not be expected that he 
would have defended an au- 
thority, which had been so 



long exercised without contro- 
versy ?" (3.) 

"These enemies of Christianity 
were confounded, whilst they 
were expecting to have found 
an opportunity to have betrayed 
its author." 

" His sea-sickness was so great, 
that I often feared he would 
have died before our arrival." 

44 If these persons had intended to 
deceive, they would have taken 
care to have avoided what would 
expose them to the objections 
of their opponents." 

44 It was a pleasure to have received 
his approbation of my labors, 
for which I cordially thanked 
him." 

44 It would have afforded me still 
greater pleasure, to receive his 
approbation at an earlier period ; 
but to receive (4.) it at all, re- 
flected credit upon me." 

44 To be censured by him, would 
soon have proved an insuper- 
able discouragement." 

41 Him portioned maids, apprenticed 
orphans blest, 

The young who labor, and the old 
who rest." 

44 The doctor, in his lecture, said, that 
fever always produced thirst" 



RULE XIV. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE XIV. 



Active participles from active transitive verbs govern the 

objective case. 



* Esteeming (5.) theirsclves "vise, 

they became fools." 
•* Suspecting not only ye, but they 
also, I was studious to avoid all 
intercourse." , 

* t sould not avoid considering, (6.) 



in some degree, they as enemies 
to me ; and he as a suspicious 
friend." 
From having exposed (1 .) hisself 
too freely, in different climates., 
he entirely lost his health." 



1. Participles are sometimes governed by the article ; for the present parti- 
ciple, with the definite article the before it, becomes a substantive, and must 
have the preposition of after it ; as, '* These are the rules of grammar, by the 
©bserving of which, you may avoid mistakes." It would not be proper to 



(1.) " shall have finished." (2.) RuJe IX. (3.) "Might it not have been?' &c. 
(4J " to kave received." Note XIII. (5.) Rule XIII. (6.) Rule VIII. (7.) 561. 



SYNTAX. 161 

eay, "by the observing which," nor, "by observing of which ;" but the 
phrase, without either article or preposition, would be right; as, "by ob- 
serving which." The article a or an has the same effect; as, " This wa3 
a betraying of the trust reposed in him." 

This rule arises from the nature and idiom of our language, and from as 
plain a principle as any on which it is founded : namely, that a word which 
has the article before it, and the possessive preposition of after it, must be a 
noun ; and, if a noun, it ought to follow the construction of a noun, and not 
to have the regimen of a verb. It is the participial termination of this sort 
of words, that is apt to deceive us, and make us treat them as if they were 
of an amphibious species, partly nouns and partly verbs. 

The following are a few examples of the violation of this rule : " He was 
cent to prepare the way by preaching of repentance ;" it ought to be, "by 
the preaching of repentance," or, "by preaching repentance." " By the, 
continual mortifying our corrupt affections ;" it should be, " by the continual 
mortifying o/*," or, "by continually mortifying our corrupt affections." 
" They laid out themselves towards the advancing and promoting the good 
of it;" " towards advancing and promoting the good." " It is an over- 
valuing ourselves, to reduce every thing to the narrow measure of our 
capacities;" "it is overvaluing ourselves," or, " an overvaluing of our- 
selves." " Keeping of one day in seven," &c. ; it ought to be, " the keep- 
ing of one day," or, " keeping one day." 

A phrase in which the article precedes the present participle, 'and the pos- 
sessive preposition follows it, will not, in every instance, convey the same 
meaning as would be conveyed by the participle without the article and 
preposition. " He expressed the pleasure he had in the hearing of the 
philosopher," is capable of a different sense from, " He expressed the 
pleasure he had in hearing the philosopher." When, therefore, we wish, 
for the sake of harmony or variety, to substitute one of these phraseologies 
<or the other, we should previously consider whether they are perfectly 
similar in the sentiments they co*vey. 

" By the observing of which." Will you parse observing ? Rule for it ? 
What words in this sentence may be omitted with propriety ? Would it be 
proper to omit one of them only ? 

1. 

il By observing of truth, you will to be the most advantageously 

command esteem, as well as situated for gaining of wisdom, 

secure peace." Poverty turns our thoughts ton 

4; He prepared them for this event, much upon the supplying our 
by the sending to them proper wants ; and riches upon the en- 
information." j°y m g our superfluities." 

'* A person may be great or rich " Pliny, speaking of Cato the Cen- 

by chance ; but cannot be wise sor's disapproving the Grecian 

or good without the taking pains orators, expressed himself thus." 

for it." " Propriety of pronunciation is the 

'Nothing could have made her giving to every word that sound, 

so unhappy, as the marrying which the most polite usage 

a man who possessed such of the language appropriates 

principles." to it." 

* The changing times and seasons, " The not attending (1.) to this rule, 

the removing and setting up is the cause (2.) of a very corn- 
kings, belong to Providence mon error." 
alone." " This was in fact a converting the 

* The middle station of life seems deposite to his own use. 

2. The same observations which have been made respecting the effect of 
the article and participle, appear to be applicable to the pronoun and partici- 
pie, when they are similarly associated ; as, " Much depends on their observ* 

(1.) Rule VI. (2.) Rule XV. 

14* 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ing of the rule, and error will be the consequence of their neglecting of it ;" 
instead of " their observing the rule, and their neglecting it." We shall per- 
ceive this more clearly, it we substitute a noun for the pronoun ; as, " Much 
depends upon Tyro's observing of the rule," &c. But, as this construction 
sounds rather harshly, it would, in general, be better to express the senti- 
ment in the following, or some other form : " Much depends on the rule's 
being observed ; and error will be the consequence on its being neglected :" 
or, " on observing the rule ;" and, " of neglecting it." This remark may 
be applied to several other modes of expression to be found in this work ; 
which, though they are contended for as strictly correct, are not always the 
most eligible, on account of their unpleasant sound. 

We sometimes meet with expressions like the following : " hi forming of 
his sentences, he was very exact;" " From calling of names, he proceeded 
to blows." But this is incorrect language ; for prepositions do not, like arti- 
cles and pronouns, convert the participle itself into the nature of a substan- 
tive ; as we have shown above in the phrase, " by observing which." And 
yet the participle, with its adjuncts, may be considered as a substantive phras* 
in the objective case, governed by the preposition or verb, expressed or un- 
derstood ; as, " l&y promising much, and performing but little, we become 
despicable ;" " He studied to avoid expressing himself too severely" 

" Much depends on their observing of the rule." Would this sentence 
be correct if the preposition of were omitted ? Will you repeat the note I 

2. 
" There will be no danger of their the directions, that we lost our 

(1.) spoiling their faces, or of way." 

their gaining converts." " In tracing of his history, we dis 

"For his avoiding that precipice, cover little that is worthy of 

he is indebted to his friend's imitation." 

care." " By reading of books written by 

44 It was from our misunderstanding the best authors, his mind be- 

came highly improved." 

3. As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense are sometimes different 
in their form, care must be taken that they be not indiscriminately used. It 
is frequently said, " He begun," for " he began ;" " He run," for " he 
ran;" " He drunk," for " he drank ;" the participle being here used in- 
stead of the imperfect tense i and much more frequently the imperfect tense 
instead of the participle ; as, " I had wrote," for " I had written ;" " I was 
chose," for " I was chosen ;" " I have eat," for " I have eaten. '* " His 
words were interwove with sighs ;" " were interwoven." " He would have 
spoke;" "spoken" "He hath bore witness to his faithful servants;" 
" borne" " By this means he overrun his guide ;" " overran" " The sun 
has rose ;" "risen." "His constitution has been greatly shook, but his 
mind is too strong to be shook by such causes ;" "shaken" in both places. 
"They were verses wrote on glass;" "written." "Philosophers have 
often mistook the source of true happiness;" it ought to be, " mistaken." 

The participle ending in ed is often improperly contracted by changing ed 
into t ; as, " In good behavior he is not surpast by any pupil of the school ;" 
44 She was much distrest;" they ought to be, "surpassed " "distressed" 
Is it correct to say, "He begun" ? What is wrong in the expression? 
Will you repeat Note 3 ? Can the participle ending in ed be contracted iot 
with propriety ? 

3. 
•*By too eager pursuit, he run a " He was greatly heated, and drunk 
great risk of being disappoint- with avidity." 

ed." (2.) 44 Though his conduct was, in some 

w He had not long enjoyed repose, respects, exceptionable, yet he 

before he begun to be weary of dared not commit so great an 

having nothing to do." offence as that which was pro« 

posed to him." 

.0.) Omit " their." (2.) P r -es. pass. part, used as a noun — Rule X. 



SYNTAX 



163 



"A second deluge learning thus 

o'errun, 
And the monks finished what the 

Goths begun." 
" If some events had not fell out 

very unexpectedly, I should 

have been present." 
" He would have went with us, had 

he been invited." 

* He returned the goods which he 

had stole, and made all the re- 
paration in his power." 

68 They have chose the part of honor 
and virtue." 

** His vices have weakened his mind, 
and broke his health." 

44 .He had mistook his true interest, 
and found himself forsook by 
his former adherents." 

* The bread that has been eat is 

soon forgot." 
" No contentions have arose amongst 

them since their reconciliation." 
" The cloth had no seam, but was 

wove throughout" 
" The French language is spoke in 

every state in Europe. 



" His resolution was too strong 
to be shook by slight opposi. 
tion." 

" He was not much restrained after- 
wards, having took improper 
liberties at first " 

" He has not yet wore off the rough 
manners which he brought with 
him." 

14 You who have forsook your 
friends, are entitled to no con* 
fidence." 

"They who have bore a part ia 
the labor, shall share ths re. 
wards." 

" When the rules have been wan- 
tonly broke, there can be no 
plea for favor." 

" He writes as the best authors 
would have wrote, had they 
writ on the same subject." 

"He heapt up great riches, but past 
hit time miserably." 

" He talkt and stampt with such 
vehemence, that he was sus* 
pected to be insane." 



HXTZ.XI XXVII. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE XV. 

Adverbs, though they have no government of case, tense, 
eye, require an appropriate situation in the sentence, 
viz. for the most part, before adjectives, after verbs 
active or neuter, and frequently between the auxiliary 
and the verb; as, "He made a very sensible dis- 
course ; he spoke unaffectedly and forcibly, and teas 
attentively heard by the whole assembly." 

A few instances of erroneous positions of adverbs may serve to illustrate 
the rule. " He must not expect to find study agreeable always ;" " always 
agreeable.'* " We always find them ready when we want them ;" " we 
find them always ready," &c. " Dissertations on the prophecies which have 
remarkably been fulfilled ;" " which have been remarkably." " Instead of 
looking contemptuously down on the crooked in mind or in body, we should 
]ook up thankfully to God, who hath made us better;" " Instead of looking 
down contemptuously, &c, we should thankfully louk up" foe. " If thou 
art blessed naturally with a good memory, continually exercise it," " na- 
turally blessed" &c. " exercise it continually." 

Sometimes the adverb is placed with propriety before the verb, or at some 
distance after it ; sometimes between the two auxiliaries ; and sometimes af- 
ter them both ; as in the following examples : " Vice always creeps by de- 
grees, and insensibly twines around us those concealed fetters, by which we 
are at last completely bound." " He encouraged the English barons to carry 
their opposition farther ;" " They compelled him to declare that he would 
abjure the realm forever ;" instead of, " to carry farther their opposition:'* 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

and " to abjure forever the realm. " " He has generally been reckoned an 
honest man;" " The book may always be had at such a place ;" in pre- 
ference to " has been generally," and " may be always." * 4 These rules 
will be clearly understood, after they have been diligently studied," is pre- 
ferable to, " These rules will clearly be understood, after they have diligently 
been studied." 

From the preceding remarks and examples, it appears that no exact and 
determinate rule can be given for the placing of adverbs, on all occasions. 
The general rule may be of considerable use ; but the easy flow and per- 
epicuity of the phrase, are the things which ought to be chiefly regarded. 

The adverb there is often used as an expletive, or as a word that adds 
nothing to the sense ; in which case it precedes the verb and the nominative 
noun ; as, " There is a person at the door ;" " There are some thieves in 
the house ;" which would be as well, or better, expressed by saying, " A 
person is at the door;" " Some thieves are in the house." Sometimes, it 
is made use of to give a small degree of emphasis to the sentence; as, 
" There was a man sent from God, whose name was John." When it is 
applied in its strict sense, it principally follows the verb and the nominative 
case ; as, " The man stands there. 11 

What word is misplaced in the sentence, "He must not expect to find 
study agreeable always" ? Will you correct the sentence, and give the Rule 
for the position of adverbs ? How is the adverb sometimes placed with re- 
spect to the verb ? With respect to the auxiliary ? 

" He was pleasing not oftenftl.) be- " So well educated a boy gives great 

cause he was vain." hopes to his friends.'' 

44 William nobly acted, though he "Not only he found her employ- 
was unsuccessful." ed, but pleased and tranquil 

** We may happily live, though our also." 

possessions are small." " We always should prefer our duty 

•* From whence (2.) we may date to our pleasure." 

likewise the period of this It is impossible continually to be 

event." at work." 

'» It cannot be impertinent or ri- " The heavenly bodies are in mo- 

diculous, therefore, to remon- tion perpetually." 

strate." "Having not known, or having not 

*-He offered an apology, which not considered, the measures pro- 
being admitted, he became sub- posed, he failed of success." 
missive." " My opinion was given on rather 

* These things should be never a (5.) cursory perusal of the 

separated." book." 

* Unless he have more government " It is too common with mankind, 

of himself, he will be always to be engrossed and overcome 

discontented." totally, by present events." 

u Never (3.) sovereign was (4.) so " When the Romans were pressed 

much beloved by the people." with a foreign enemy, the 

K fle was determined to invite back women contributed all their 

the king, and to call together rings and jewels voluntarily, to 

his friends." assist the government." 

1 The adverb never generally precedes the verb; as, "I never was 
tLore ;" "He never comes at a proper time." When an auxiliary is used, 
it is placed indifferently, either before or after this adverb; as, " He was 
never seen (or never was seen) to laugh from that time." Never seems to 
be improperly used in the following passages: "Ask me never so much 
dowry and gift." " If I make my hands never so clean." " Charm he 
never so wisely." The word ever would be more suitable to the sense. 

(i.) "vot often pleasinsr. (2.) 589. '3.) " JVb." (4.) " ever so." 

15.) " a rather."— Rule IX. 



S i is T A X . 16a 

How is the adverb never generally placed with respect to the verb ? Givo 
fcii example. Give an example where the word never is improperly used 
instead of ever. 

1. 

u They could not persuade him, " If some persons* opportunities were 
though they were never so elo- never so favorable, they would 

quent." be indolent to improve them." 

2. In imitation of the French idiom, the adverb of place where is often 
used instead of the pronouns relative and a preposition. " They framed a 
protestation, where they repeated all their former claims ;" i. e. " in which 
they repeated." " The king was still determined to run forwards, in the 
same course where he was already, by his precipitate career, too fatally ad- 
vanced ;" i. e. "in which he was." But it would be better to avoid this 
mode of expression. 

The adverbs hence, thence, and whence, imply a preposition ; for they sig- 
nify, " from this place," " from that place." " from what place." It seems, 
therefore, strictly speaking, to be improper to join a preposition with them, 
because it is superfluous ; as, " This is the leviathan, from whence the wits 
of our age are said to borrow their weapons ;" " An ancient author prophe- 
sies from hence." But the origin of these words is little attended to, and 
the preposition /rom so often used in construction with them, that the omis- 
sion of it, in many cases, would seem stiff, and be disagreeable. 

The adverbs here, there, where, are often improperly applied to verbs sig- 
nifying motion, instead of the adverbs hither, thither, whither; as, "He 
came here hastily;" "They rode there with speed." They should be, 
" He came hither ;" "They rode thither," &c. 

" They framed a protestation where they repeated all their former claims.' 
Will you correct this sentence, and repeat Note 2 ? 



11 He drew up a petition, where he " George is active ; he walked 

too freely represented his own there in less than an hour.* 

merits." (1.) 

"His follies had reduced him to a "Where are you all going in such 

situation where he had much to haste ?" 

fear, and nothing to hope." "Whither have they been since 

" It is reported that the prince will they left the city ?" 

come here to-morrow." 

3. We have some examples of adverbs being used for substantives : " In 
1687, he erected it into a community of regulars, since when it has begun 
to increase in those countries as a religious order;" i. e. "since which 
time." "A little while, and I shall not see you;" i. e. " a short time.'' 1 
" It is worth their while ;" i. e. " it deserves their time and pains." But 
this use of the word rather suits familiar than grave style. Trie same may 
be said of the phrase, " To do a thing anyhow ;" i. e. "in any manner:" 
or, " somehow ;" i. e. "in some manner." " Somehow, worthy as these 
people are, they are under the influence of prejudice." 

Will you repeat this note, and give an example under it ? 



3. 

* Charles left the seminary too " Nothing is better worth the while 

early, since when he has (3.) of young persons, than the 

made very little improve- acquisition of knowledge and 

ment." (2.) virtue." 

(1.) Rule XXTT. (2.) " and from that time he," &c. ; or. " and hat since made* 

fcc. (3.) " the time and attention of," &c. 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

HULE XIX. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE XVI. 

Two negatives, in the same simple sentence, are equivalent 
to an affirmative ; as, " Nor did they not perceive him ;" 
i. e. " They did perceive him." 

It is better to expres. an affirmation by a regular affirmative, than by two 
separate negatives, as in the former sentence ; but when one of the nega« 
tives is joined to another word, as in the latter sentence, the two negatives 
form a pleasing and delicate variety of expression. 

Some writers have improperly employed two negatives instead of one 5 
as, in the following instances : " I never did repent of doing good, nor shalS 
not now;" "nor shall I now. 11 "Never no imitator grew up to his 
author ;" " never did any" &c. " I cannot by no means allow him what 
his argument must prove ;" 4t I cannot by any means, " &c. ; or, " I can 
hy no means." " Nor let no comforter approach me ;" " nor let any com- 
forter," &c. " Nor is danger ever apprehended in such a government, no 
more than we commonly apprehend danger from thunder or earthquakes;" 
it should be, " any more." " Ariosto, Tasso, Galileo, no more than 
Raphael, were not born in republics;" "Neither Ariosto, Tasso, nor 
Galileo, any more than Raphael, was born in a republic." 

Should we express an affirmation by an affirmative, or by two separate 
negatives ? Will you give an example of the improper use of two negatives ? 

u Neither riches nor honors, nor 710 " Do not interrupt me yourselves, 

such perishing goods, can satisfy nor let no one disturb my retire- 

the desires of an immortal ment." 

spirit." "These people do not judge wise- 

"Be honest, nor take no shape nor ly, nor take no proper measure 

semblance of disguise." to effect their purpose." 

"We need not, nor (1.) do not, con- "The measure is so exceptionable, 

fine his operations to narrow that we cannot by no means 

limits." permit it." 

"I am resolved not to comply with " I have received no information on 

the proposal, neither at present, the subject, neither from him 

nor at any other time." nor from his friend." 

" There cannot be nothing more " Precept nor discipline is not so 

insignificant than vanity." forcible as example." 

"Nothing never affected her so "The king nor the queen was 

much, as this misconduct of not all deceived in the busi« 

her child." ness." 

HULS X. 
Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 

RULE XVII. 

Prepositions govern the objective case. 

The following are examples of the nominative case being used instead of' 
^he objective : "Who servest thou under?" " Who do you speak tof" 
" We are still much at a loss who civil power belongs to." " Who dost 
tnou ask for ?" " Associate not with those who none can speak well of." 
In all these places, it ought to be, " whom." 

The prepositions to and for are often understood, chiefly before the pro- 
nouns : as, " Give me the book ;" " Get me some paper ;" that is, " to me," 

(1.) "and do." 



SYNTAX. 1G7 

ft 
" for me." " Wo is me ;" i. e. " to me." " He was banished England ;" 
i.*e. "from England." 

" Who do you speak to?" Will you correct this sentence, and explain 
why it is wrong ? " Give me the book." What is understood in this sen- 
tence ? 

41 We are all accountable creatures, to ? Who does he offer such 

each for hisself" language to ?" 

" They willingly, and of their selves, 'It was not hz that they were so 

endeavored to make up the dif- angry with." 

ference." " What concord can subsist between 

"He laid the suspicion upon some- those who commit crimes, and 

body, I know not who in the they (2.) who abhor them ?" 

company." ' The person who I travelled with, 

m I hope it is not I who (1.) he is has sold the horse which he rode 

displeased with." on during our journey." 

c 'To poor we, there is not much " It is not I he is engaged with." 

hope remaining." " Who did he receive that intelh- 

11 Does that boy know who he speaks gence from ?' ' 

1. The preposition is often separated from the relative which it governs ; 
as, "Whom wilt thou give it to ?" instead of, " To whom wilt thou give 
it ?" " He is an author whom I am much delighted with ;" " The world is 
too polite to shock authors with a truth, which generally their booksellers 
are the first that inform them of." This is an idiom to which our language 
is strongly inclined ; it prevails in common conversation, and suits very weli 
with the familiar style in writing : but the placing of the preposition before 
the relative is more graceful, as well as more perspicuous, and agrees much 
better with the solemn and elevated style. 

Will you repeat this Note, and give an example under it ? 

1. 

" To have no one whom we heartily " He is a friend whom I am highly 
wish well to, and whom we are indebted to." 

warmly concerned for, is a de- 
plorable state." 

2. Some writers separate the preposition from its noun, in order to con- 
nect different prepositions with the same noun ; as, " To suppose the zodiac 
and planets to be efficient of, and antecedent to, themselves." This, whether 
in the familiar or the solemn style, is always inelegant, and should generally 
be avoided. In forms of law, and the like, where fulness and exactness of 
expression must take place of every other consideration, it may be admitted. 

Is it correct to separate the preposition from the noun which it governs ? 
When may it be admitted ? 

2. 
" On these occasions, the pronoun is " They were refused entrance into, 
governed by (3.) and consequently and forcibly driven from, the 

agrees with, the preceding word." house." 

3. Different relations, and different senses, must be expressed by different 
prepositions, though in conjunction with the same verb or adjective. Thus 
we say, "To converse with a person, upon a subject, in a house," &c. 
We also say, " We are disappointed of a thing," when we cannot get it ( 
*' and disappointed in it," when we have it, and find it does not answer oufc 
expectations. But two different prepositions must be improper in the sam* 
constructions, and in the same sentence ; as, " The combat between thirty 
French against twenty English." 

In some cases, it is difficult to say, to which of two prepositions the pre- 
ference is to be given, as both are used promiscuously, and custom has not 
decided in favor of either of them. We say, "Expert at," and " Expert in 
a thing;" "Expert at finding a remedy for his mistakes;" "Expert in 
deception." 

(I.) "with whom." (2.) "those." (5.) " by the preceding word, and consequently agrees with 4.» 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

When prepositions are subjoined to nouns, they are generally the stu:;e 
that are subjoined to the verbs from which the nouns are derived ; as, " A 
compliance with,' 1 " to comply with;' 11 " A disposition to tyranny," " dis- 
posed to tyrannize." 

Do we express different relations and different sense by the same, or a 
different preposition ' 

3. 
"We are often disappointed of things, pany, but have always hitherto 

which, before possession, prom- been disappointed in that pleas- 

ised much enjoyment." ure." 

" I have frequently desired their com- 

4. As an accurate and appropriate use of the preposition is of great im« 
portance, we shall select a considerable number of examples of impropriety 
m the application of this part of speech. 

1st, With respect to the preposition of. " He is resolved of going to th® 
Persian court ;" " on going," &c. " He was totally dependent of the Papal 
crown ;" " on the Papal," &c. " To call of a person," and " to wait of 
him;" "on a person," &c. "He was eager of recommending it to hia 
fellow-citizens ;" "in recommending," &c. O/is sometimes omitted, and 
sometimes inserted, after worthy ; as, " It is worthy observation," or, " of 
observation." But it would have been better omitted in the following sen- 
tences : " The emulation, who should serve their country best, no longer 
subsists among them, but of who should obtain the most lucrative command." 
" The rain hath been falling of o. long time ;" " falling a long time." '* It 
is situation chiefly which decides of the fortune and characters of men;" 
"decides the fortune," or, "concerning the fortune." "He found the 
greatest difficulty of writing ;" " in writing." " It might have given me a 
greater taste of its antiquities." A taste of a thing implies actual enjoyment 
of it ; but a taste for it, implies only a capacity for enjoyment. " This had 
a much greater share of inciting him, than any regard after his father'? 
commands ;" •• share in inciting," and " regard to his father's," &c. 

2d, With respect to the prepositions to and for. " You have bestowed 
your favors to the most deserving persons ;" " upon the most deserving," 
&c. "He accused the ministers for betraying the Dutch;" " of having 
betrayed." " His abhorrence to that superstitious figure ;" " o/that," &c. 
" A great change to the better ;" "for the better." " Your prejudice to 
my cause ;" "against 11 "The English were very different people then 
to what they are at present ;" "from what," &c. " In compliance to the 
declaration ;" " with" &c. " It is more than they thought for ;" " thought 
ef." " There is no need for it ;" " of it." For is superfluous in the phrase, 
" More than he knows for. 11 " No discouragement for the authors to pro- 
ceed ;" " to the authors," &c. " It was perfectly in compliance to some 
persons ;" " with. 11 " The wisest princes need not think it any diminution 
to their greatness, or derogation to their sufficiency, to lely upon counsel ;" 
"diminution of, 11 and " derogation from. 11 

3d, With respect to the prepositions with and upon, " Reconciling him- 
self with the king." " Those things which have the greatest resemblance 
with each other, frequently differ the most." u That such rejection should 
be consonant with our common nature." " Conformable with," &c. " The 
history of Peter is agreeable with the sacred texts." In all the above in- 
stances, it should be " to, 11 instead of " with 11 "It is a use that, perhaps, 
I should not have thought on;" "thought of" "A greater quantity may 
be taken from the heap, without making any sensible alteration upon it ;" 
" in it." " Intrusted to persons on whom the parliament could confide ;" 
"in whom." " He was made much on at Argos;" "much of." "If 
policy can prevail upon force ;" " over force." " I do likewise dissent with 
the examiner ;" "from." 

4th, With respect to the prepositions in, from, &c. " They should be in- 
formed in some parts of his character ;" " about," or " concerning. 11 " Upon 
such occasions as fell into their cognizance ;" "under. 11 " That variety of 
factions into which we are still engaged ;" " in which." " To restore myself 
into the favor ;" " to the favor." " Could he have profited from his repeated 
experiences ;" "by." From seems to be superfluous after forbear ; as, " He 



SYNTAX. 



163 



could not forbear from appointing the pope," &c. "A strict observance 
after times and fashions ;" " of times." " The character which we may now 
value ourselves by drawing ;" " upon drawing." " Neither of them shall 
make me swerve out of the path;" "from the path." " Ye blind guides, 
which strain at a gnat, and swallow a camel ;" it ought to be, " which strain 
out a gnat, or, take a gnat out of the liquor by straining it." The impro- 
priety of the preposition has wholly destroyed the meaning of the phrass. 

The preposition among generally implies a number of things. It cannot 
be properly used in conjunction with the word every, which is in the singu- 
lar number; as, " Which is found among every species of liberty," " The 
opinion seems to gain ground among every body." 

"He is resolved of going to the Persian court." Will you correct this 
•sentence? "You have bestowed your favors to the most deserving per- 
sons." How should this sentence be altered ? 

" Reconciling himself with the king." What inaccuracy is there in thia 
1 •Sentence? "They should be informed in some parts of his character." 
Will you correct this sentence ? 



She finds a difficulty of fixing her 
mind." 

Her sobriety is no derogation to 
her understanding." 

There was no water, and he died 
for (1.) thirst." 

We can fully confide on (2.) none 
but the truly good." 

I have no occasion of his services." 

Many have profited from good ad- 
vice." 

Many ridiculous practices have 
been brought in vogue." 

The error was occasioned by com- 
pliance to earnest entreaty." 

This is a principle in unison to our 
nature." 

We should entertain no prejudices 
to simple and rustic persons." 

They are at present resolved of 
doing their duty." 

That boy is known under the name 
of the idler." 

Though conformable with custom, 
it is not warrantable." 

This remark is founded in truth." 

His parents think on him and his 
improvements, with pleasure and 
hope." 

His excuse was admitted of by (3.) 
his master." 

What went ye out for to see ?" 

There appears to have been a mil- 
lion men brought into the field." 

His present was accepted of by his 
friends." 

More than a thousand of men were 
destroyed." 

It is my request that he will be 
particular in speaking to the fol- 
lowing points." 

The Saxons reduced the greater 



part of Britain to their own 
power." 

1 He lives opposite the royal ex- 
change." 

1 Their house is situated to the north- 
east side of the road." 

[ The performance was approved of 
by all who understood it." 

: He was accused with having acted 
unfairly." 

; She has an abhorrence to all de- 
ceitful conduct." 

; They were some distance (4.) from 
home, when the accident hap- 
pened." 

His deportment was adapted for 
conciliating regard." 

My father writes me very fre- 
quently." 

Their conduct was agreeable with 
their profession." 

We went leisurely above stairs, and 
came hastily below. We shall 
write up stairs this forenoon, and 
down stairs in the afternoon." 

The politeness of the world has 
the same resemblance with 
benevolence, that the shadow 
has with its substance." 

He had a taste of such studies, and 
pursued them earnestly." 

When we have had a true taste for 
the pleasures of virtue, we can 
have no relish for those of vice." 

How happy it is to know how we 
live at times by one's self, to 
leave one's self in regret, to find 
one's self again with pleasure ! 
The world is then less necessary 
for us." 

Civility makes its way among 
every kind of persons." 



<!•) " of: 



(2.) u in.* 



15 



(3.) "Jy. 



(4 ) R. XXII, 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. The preposition to is made use of before nouns of place, when they 
follow verbs and participles of motion ; as, "I went to London ;" "I am 
going to town." But the preposition at is generally used after the neuter 
verb to be ; as, " I have been at London ;" "I was at the place appointed ;" 
"I shall be at Paris." We likewise say, ""He touched, arrived at any 
place.' The preposition in is set before countries, cities, and large towns ; 
as, " He lives in France, in London, or in Birmingham." But before vil- 
lages, single houses, and cities which are in distant countries, at is used ; 
as, " He lives at Hackney ;" " He resides at Montpellier." 

It is a matter of indifference, with respect to the pronoun one another, 
whether the preposition of be placed between the two parts of it, or before 
them both. We may say, "They were jealous of one another;" or, 
" They were jealous one of another ;" but perhaps the former is better. 

Participles are frequently used as prepositions; as, excepting, respecting, 
touching, concerning, according. " They were all in fault except or except- 
ing him." 

How is the preposition to used with nouns of place ? Give an example. 
Are participles ever used as prepositions ? Give an example. 

5. 

64 1 have been to London, after hav- and are going for Liverpool. 

ing resided a year at France ; They intend to reside some time 

and I now live at Islington." in Ireland." 

" They have just landed in Hull, 

HULS XX. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE XVIII. 

Conjunctions usually connect verbs of the same mood and 
tense, and nouns or pronouns of the same case. 

A few examples of inaccuracy respecting this rule may further display it3 
utility. " If he prefer a virtuous life, and is sincere in his professions, he 
will succeed ;" " if he prefers." " To deride the miseries of the unhappy, 
is inhuman ; and wanting compassion towards them, is unchristian ;" " and 
to want compassion." " The parliament addressed the king, and has been 
prorogued the same day ;" " and was prorogued." " His wealth and him 
bid adieu to each other ;" " and he." " He entreated us, my comrade and 
I, to live harmoniously ;" " comrade and me." " My sister and her were 
on good terms;" "and she." "We often overlook the blessings which 
are in our possession, and are searching after those which are out of our 
reach ;" it ought to be " and search after." 

" His wealth and him bid adieu to each other." Will you correct this 
sentence, and give the rule for Conjunctions ? 

" Professing regard, and to act " To be moderate in our views, and 

(1.) differently, discover a base proceeding temperately in the 

mind." pursuit of them, is the best way 

"Did he not tell me his fault, and to ensure success." 

entreated me to forgive him ?" " Between him and I there is some 

* My brother and him are tolerable disparity of years ; but none be- 

grammarians." tween him and she." 

" If he understand the subject, and * By forming themselves on fantas~ 

attends to it industriously, he can tic models, and ready to vie with 

scarcely fail of success." one another in the reigning fol- 

w You and us enjoy many privileges." lies, the young begin with being 

" She and him are very unhappily ridiculous, ana end with being 

connected." vicious and immoral." 
1, Conjunctions are, indeed, frequently made to connect different moods 

and tenses of verbs ; but in these instances, the nominative must generally, if 

CI. '■ acting," or. u To profess regard, and to act," &c 






SYNTAX. 171 

not always, be repeated which is not necessary, though it may be done, 
under the construction to which the rule refers. We may say, " He lives 
temperately, and he should live temperately;" "He may return, but he 
will not continue ,"" " She was proud, though she is now humble :" but it 
is obvious, that, in such cases, the nominative ought to be repeated ; and 
that, by this means, the latter members of these sentences are rendered not 
so strictly dependent on the preceding, as those are which come under this 
rule. When, in the progress of a sentence, we pass from the affirmative to 
the negative form, or from the negative to the affirmative, the subject or 
nominative is always resumed ; as, " He is rich, but he is not respectable." 
There appears to be, in general, equal reason for repeating the nominative, 
and resuming the subject, when the course of the sentence is diverted by a 
change of the mood or tense. The following sentences may therefore be 
improved : " Anger glances into the breast of a wise man, but will rest only 
in the bosom of fools;" "but rests only;" or, " but it will rest only." 
" Virtue is praised by many, and would be desired also, if her worth were 
really known;" "and she would." "The world begins to recede, and 
will soon disappear ;" " and it will." 

Do conjunctions ever connect different moods and tenses of verbs ? What 
case must generally be repeated in such instances ? Give an example. 

1. 

"We have met with many disap great riches, but do not command 

pointments ; and, if life continue, esteem." 

shall (1.) probably meet with " Our seasons of improvement are 
many more." short, and, whether used or not, 

"Rank may confer influence, but will will soon pass away." 

(2.) not necessarily produce vir- " He might have been happy, and is 
tue." now (3.) fully convinced of it." 

"He does not want courage, but is "Learning strengthens the mind, and 
defective in sensibility." if properly applied, will improve 

" These people have indeed acquired our morals too." 

HULS XXVIII. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 

RULE XIX. 

Some conjunctions require the indicative, some the sub- 
junctive, mood after them. It is a general rule, that 
when something contingent or doubtful is implied, the 
subjunctive ought to be used ; as, " If I were to write, 
he would not regard it ;" " He will not be pardoned, 
unless he repent" 

Conjunctions that are of a positive and absolute nature 
inquire the indicative mood. " As virtue advances, 
so vice recedes ;" " He is healthy, because he is tem- 
perate." 

The conjunctions if, though, unless, except, whether, &c, generally require 
the subjunctive mood after them; as, "//"thou be afflicted, repine not;" 
" Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him ;" "He cannot be clean, unless 
he wash himself;" "No power, except it were given from above;" 
" Whether it were I or they, so we preach." But even these conjunctions, 
when the sentence does not imply doubt, admit of the indicative ; as, 
" Though he is poor, he is contented." 

The following example may, in some measure, serve to illustrate the dis- 

(1.) " we shall. 11 (2.) « it will." (3.) •« and now he is* 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tinction between the subjunctive and the indicative moods*. " Though he 
were divinely inspired, and spoke therefore as the oracles of God, with 
supreme authority ; though he were endued with supernatural powers, and 
could, therefore, have confirmed the truth of what he uttered, by miracles ; 
yet, in compliance with the way in which human nature and reasonable 
creatures are usually wrought upon, he reasoned." That our Saviour was 
divinely inspired, and endued with supernatural powers, are positions that 
are here taken for granted, as not admitting the least doubt; they would 
therefore have been better expressed in the indicative mood: " Though he 
was divinely inspired ; though he was endued with supernatural powers.' * 
The subjunctive is used in the like improper manner, in the following 
example : " Though he were a son, yet learned he obedience, by the things 
■which he suffered." But, in a similar passage, the indicative, with great 
•propriety, is employed to the same purpose ; " Though he was rich, yet for 
your sakes he became poor.' 1 

What conjunctions generally reqaire the subjunctive mood after them ? 
" If he acquires (1.) riches, they will " Though he were her friend, he did 
corrupt his mind, and be useless not attempt to justify her con- 

to others." duct." 

"Though he urges me yet more " Whether he improve or not, I can 
earnestly, I shall not comply, not determine." 

unless he advances more forcible " Though the fact be extraordinary, 
reasons." it certainly did happen." 

"I shall walk in the fields to-day, "Remember what thou wert, and 

unless it rains." be (3.) humble." 

" As the governess were (2.") present, " O that his heart was tender, and 
the children behaved properly." susceptible of the woes of others." 

" She disapproved the measure-, be- " Shall then this verse to future age 

cause it were very improper." pretend, 

" Though he be high, he hath respect Thou wert my guide, philosopher, 
to the lowly." and friend ?" 

1. Lest and that, annexed to a command preceding, necessarily require 
the subjunctive mood; as, "Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty;" 
" Reprove not a scorner, lest he hate thee ;" " Take heed that thou speak 
not to Jacob." 

If, with but following it, when futurity is denoted, requires the subjunctive 
mood ; as, ** If he do but touch the hills, they shall smoke ;" " If 'he be but 
discreet, he will succeed." But the indicative ought to be used, on this 
occasion, when future time is not signified ; as, " If, in this expression, he 
does but jest, no offence should be taken;" "If she is but sincere, I am 
happy." The same distinction applies to the following forms of expression : 
" If he do submit, it will be from necessity ;" " Though he does submit, he 
is not convinced ;" " If thou do not reward this service, he will be discou- 
raged ;" " If thou dost heartily forgive him, endeavor to forget the offence." 

When do lest and that require the subjunctive mood after them ? When 
does if require the subjunctive ? When the indicative ? 

1. 

11 Despise not any condition, lest it abilities, he is worthy of atten. 

happens to be your own." tion." 

' Let him that, is sanguine take heed " If he be but in health, I am con* 

i lest he miscarries" tent." 

k" Take care that thou breakest not " If he does promise, he will certain- 

any of the established rules." ly perform." 

11 If he does but (4.) intimate his de- " Though he do praise her, it is only 

sire, it will be sufficient to pro- for her beauty." 

duce obedience." "If thou dost not forgive, perhaps 

" At the time of his return, if he is thou wilt not be forgiven." 

but expert in the business, he " If thou do sincerely believe the 

will find employment.' truths of religion, act according* 

M If he do but speak to display his ly." 






(1.) 464. (2.) 465. (3.) Impera. (4.) 654. 



SYNTAX. 173 

2. In the following instances, the conjunction that, expressed or understood, 
seems to be improperly accompanied with the subjunctive mood : 4< So much 
she dreaded his tyranny, that the fate of her friend she dare not lament;" 
" He reasoned so artfully, that his friends would listen, and think [that] he 
were not wrong." 

Will you repeat this Note, and give an example under it? 

2. 
M His confused behaviour made it rea- rebuke, that he dare not make any 
sonable to suppose that he were reply." 

guilty." " His apology was so plausible, that 

u He is so conscious of deserving the many befriended him, and thought 

he were innocent." 

3. The same conjunction governing both the indicative and the subjunc- 
tive moods, in the same sentence, and in the same circumstances, seems to 
be a great impropriety ; as in these instances : " If there be but one body of 
legislators, it is no better than a tyranny, if there are only two, there will 
want a casting voice." " If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them 
is gone astray," &c. 

May the same conjunction have both the subjunctive and indicative moods 
after it in the same sentence ? Give an example of this impropriety. 

3. 

41 If one man prefer a life of industry, unless he aim at reputation, or 

it is because he has an idea of com- hopes for some singular advan- 

fort in wealth; if another prefers tage." 

a life of gayety, it is from a like " Though the design be laudable, and 

idea concerning pleasure." is favourable to our interest, it will 

" No one engages in that business, involve much anxiety and labour." 

4. Almost all the irregularities in the construction of any language, have 
arisen from the ellipsis of some words which were originally inserted in the 
sentence, and made it regular ; and it is probable, that this has generally been 
the case with respect to the conjunctive form of words now in use ; which 
will appear from the following examples : " We shall overtake him, though 
he run ;" that is, " though he should run." " Unless he act prudently, he 
will not accomplish his purpose ;" that is, "unless he shall act prudently." 
44 If he succeed, and obtain his end, he will not be the happier for it ;" that 
is, " If he should succeed, and should obtain his end." These remarks and 
examples are designed to show the original of many of our present conjunc- 
tive forms of expression ; and to enable the student to examine the propriety 
of using them, by tracing the words in question to their proper origin and 
ancient connections. But it is necessary to be more particular on this sub- 
ject, and therefore we shall add a few observations respecting it. 

That part of the verb which grammarians call the present tense of the sub- 
junctive mood, has a future signification. This is effected by varying the 
terminations of the second and third persons singular of the indicative ; as will 
be evident from the following examples : " If thou prosper, thou shouldst be 
thankful." " Unless he study more closely, he will never be learned." Some 
writers, however, would express these sentiments without those variations ; 
44 If thou prosperest," &c. ; " Unless he studies," &c. ; and, as there is great 
diversity of practice in this point, it is proper to ofTer the learners a few re 
marks, to assist them in distinguishing the right application of these different 
forms of expression. It may be considered as a rule, that the changes of ter- 
mination are necessary, when these two circumstances concur : 1st, When 
the subject is of a dubious and contingent nature ; and, 2d, When the verb 
has a reference to future time. In the following sentences, both these circum- 
stances will be found to unite : " If thou injure another, thou wilt hurt thy sell." 
44 He has a hard heart ; and if he continue impenitent, he must suffer." 44 He 
will maintain his principles, though he lose his estate." " Whether he succeed 
or not, his intention is laudable." " If he be not prosperous, he will not re- 
pine." 4< If a man smite his servant, and he die," &c. Exod. xxi. 20. In all 
these examples, the things signified by the verbs are uncertain, and refer to 
future time. But in the instances which follow, future time is not referred to ; 
15* 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

and therefore a different construction takes place : " If thou livest virtuous- 
ly, thou art happy." " Unless he means what he says, he is doubly faith- 
less." " If he allows the excellence of Virtue, he does not regard her 
precepts." " Though he seems to be simple and artless, he has deceived 
us." " Whether virtue is better than rank or wealth, admits not of any dis- 
pute." " If thou believest with all thy heart, thou mayest," &c. Acts viii. 
37. There are many sentences, introduced by conjunctions, in which neither 
contingency nor futurity is denoted ; as, " Though he excels her in know- 
ledge, she far exceeds him in virtue." " I have no doubt of his principles ; 
but if he believes the truths of religion, he does not act according to them." 

That both the circumstances of contingency and futurity are necessary, 
as tests of the propriety of altering the terminations, will be evident, by 
inspecting the following examples ; which show that there are instances in 
which neither of the circumstances alone implies the other. In the three 
examples following, contingency is denoted, but not futurity : " If he thinks 
as he speaks, he may safely be trusted." " If he is now disposed to it, I 
will perform the operation." " He acts uprightly, unless he deceives me." 
In the following sentences, futurity is signified, but not contingency. " As 
soon as the sun sets, it will be cooler." " As the autumn advances, these 
birds will gradually emigrate." 

It appears, from the tenor of the examples adduced, that the rules above 
mentioned may be extended to assert, that, in cases wherein contingency and 
futurity do not concur, it is not proper to turn the verb from its signification of 
present time, or to vary its form or termination. The verb would then be in 
the indicative mood, whatever conjunctions might attend it. If these rules, 
which seem to form the true distinction between the subjunctive and the in- 
dicative moods in this tense, were adopted and established in practice, we 
should have, on this point, a principle of decision simple and precise, and* 
readily applicable to every case that might occur. It will, doubtless, some- 
times happen, that, on this occasion, as well as on many other occasions, a 
strict adherence to grammatical rules would render the language stiff and 
formal ; but when cases of this sort occur, it is better to give the expression a 
different turn, than violate grammar for the sake of ease, or even of elegance. 

Has the present tense of the subjunctive mood a future signification? 
How is this effected? What two circumstances should concur to render 
necessary this change of termination ? 

Should the termination be changed when futurity and contingency do not 
concur ? What mood or form will the verb then be in ? 

4. 

" Unless he learns faster, he will be Persevere until thou gainest the 

no scholar." summit: there, all is order, beauty 

11 Though he falls, he shall not be and pleasure." 

utterly cast down." " If Charlotte desire to gain esteem 

" On condition that he comes, I will and love, she does not employ 

consent to stay." the proper means." 

" However that affair terminates, (1.) " Unless the accountant deceive me, 

my conduct will be unimpeach- my estate is considerably im- 

able." proved." 

" If virtue rewards us not so soon as " Though self-government produce 

we desire, the payment will be some uneasiness, it is lignt when 

made with interest." compared with the pain of vici- 

11 Till repentance composes his mind, ous indulgence." 

he will be a stranger to peace." " Whether he think as he speaks, 

" Whether he confesses or not, the time will discover." 

truth will certainly be discover- " If thou censure uncharitably, thou 

ed." deservest no favor." 

"If thou censurest uncharitably, thou u Though Virtue appear severe, she 

wilt be entitled to no favor." is truly amiable." 

11 Though, at times, the ascent to the " Though success be very doubtful, 

temple of virtue appears steep it is proper that he endeavors to 

and craggy, be not discouraged. succeed." 

(l.J Or, "may terminate." 






SYNTAX. 175 

5. On the form of the auxiliaries in the compound tenses of the subjunc, 
rive mood, i seems proper to make a few observations. Some writers 
express themselves in the perfect tense as follows: " If thou have deter- 
mined, we must submit :" " Unless he have consented, the writing will be 
void:" but we believe that few authors of critical sagacity write in this 
manner. The proper form seems to be, " If thou hast determined," " Un 
less he has consented," &c, conformably to what we generally meet wit 1| 
in the Bible : " I have surnamed thee, though thou hast not known me." 
Isaiah xlv. 4, 5. " What is the hope of the hypocrite, though he hath 
gained," &c. Job xxvii. 8. See, also, Acts xxviii. 4. 

" If thou have determined, we must submit." How should this sen< 
tence be altered ? 

5. 
F If thou have promised, be faithful to submission, he is too generooi 

to thy engagement." to exact it." 

** Though he have proved his right " Unless he have improved, he ia 

unfit for the office. ' ' 

6. In the pluperfect and future tenses, we sometimes meet with such ex* 
pressions as these ; " If thou had applied thyself diligently, thou wouldst 
have reaped the advantage ;" " Unless thou shall speak the whole truth, 
we cannot determine;" ''If thou will undertake the business, there is 
little doubt of success." This mode of expressing the auxiliaries does not 
appear to be warranted by the general practice of correct writers. They 
should be, hadst, shalt and wilt : and we find them used in this form, in 
the Sacred Scriptures: " If thou hadst known," &c. Luke xix. 47. " If 
*.hou hadst been here," &c. John xi. 21. " If thou wilt, thou canst make 
me clean." Matt. viii. 2. See, also, 2 Sam. ii. 27; Matt. xvii. 4. 

" If thou wilt undertake the business, there is little doubt of success." Is 
this mode of expression warranted by good authority ? How should it bo 
altered ? 

6. 
" If thou had succeeded, perhaps of the measure, we shall not de- 

thou wouldst not be the happier sire thy support." 

for it." "Though thou will not acknowledge, 

" Unless thou shall see the propriety thou canst not deny the fact." 

7. The second person singular of the imperfect tense in the subjunctive 
mood, is also very frequently varied in its termination; as, " If thou loved 
him truly, thou wouldst obey him;" "Though thou did conform, thou 
hast gained nothing by it." This variation, however, appears to be impro- 
per. Our present version of the Scriptures, which we again refer to as a 
good grammatical authority in points of this nature, decides against it : "If 
thou knewest the gift," &c. John iv. 10. " If thou didst receive it, why 
dost thou glory V &c. 1 Cor. iv. 7. See, also, Dan. v. 22. But it is pro- 
per to remark, that the form of the verb to be, when used subjunctively in 
the imperfect tense, is indeed very considerably and properly varied from 
that which it has in the imperfect of the indicative mood ; as the learner 
will perceive by turning to the conjugation of that verb. 

Is the second person singular of the imperfect ever varied in its termi- 
nation in the subjunctive mood ? Will you give an example ? Is this varia- 
tion proper ? 

7. 
" If thou gave liberally, thou wilt " Was he ever so great and opu- 

receive a liberal reward." lent, this conduct would debasa 

"Though thou did injure him, he him." 

harbors no resentment." " Was I to enumerate all her virtues, 

44 It would be well, if the report was it would look like flattery." 

only the misrepresentation of her " Though I was perfect, yet would 

enemies." I not presume." 

8. It may not be superfluous also to observe, that the auxiliaries of the po- 
tential mood, when applied to the subjunctive, do not change the termination 
©f the second person singular. We properly say, "If thou mayst or ta?ist go;" 
" Though thou mightst live :" " Unless thou couldst read;" " If thou wouldst 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

learn;" — and not, " If thou may or can go," &c. It is sufficient, on this point, 
to adduce the authorities of Johnson and Lowth : — " If thou shouldst go ;'* 
Johnson. " If thou mayst. mightst, or couldst love ;" Lowth. Some authors 
think thai, when that expresses the motive or end, the termination of these 
auxiliaries should be varied ; as, "I advise thee, that thou may beware ;" 
" He checked thee, that thou should not presume ;" but there does not appear 
to be any ground for this exception. If the expression of " condition, doubt, 
contingency," &,c. does not warrant a change in the form of these auxiliaries, 
why should they have it, when a motive or end is expressed ? The transla- 
tors of the Scriptures do not appear to have made the distinction contended 
for. " Thou buildest the wall, that thou mayst be their king." Neh. vi. 6. 
" There is forgiveness with thee, that thou mayst be feared." Ps. cxxx. 4» 

From the preceding observations under this rule, it appears, that, with re- 
spect to what is termed the present tense of any verb, when the circumstances 
of contingency and futurity concur, it is proper to vary the terminations oi the 
second and third persons singular ; that without the concurrence of those cir- 
cumstances, the terminations should not be altered ; and that the verb and the 
auxiliaries of the three past tenses, and the auxiliaries of the first future, un» 
dergo no alterations whatever, except the imperfect of the verb to be, which, in 
cases denoting contingency, is varied in all the persons of the singular number. 

After perusing what has been advanced on this subject, it will be natural for 
the student to inquire, What is the extent of the subjunctive mood ? Some 
grammarians think it extends only to what is called the present tense of verbs 
generally, under the circumstances of contingency and futurity, and to the 
imperfect tense of the verb to be, when it denotes contingency, &c. ; because 
in these tenses only, the form of the verb admits of variation ; and they sup- 
pose that it is variation merely which constitutes the distinction of moods. 
It is the opinion of other grammarians, (in which opinion we concur,) that, 
besides the two cases just mentioned, all verbs in the three past and the two 
future tenses are in the subjunctive mood, when they denote contingency 
or uncertainty, though they have not any change of termination ; and that, 
when contingency is not signified, the verb, through all these five tenses, 
belongs to the indicative mood, whatever conjunction may attend it. They 
think that the definition and nature of the subjunctive mood have no refer- 
ence to change of termination, but that they refer merely to the manner of 
the being, action, or passion signified by the verb ; and that the subjunctive 
mood may as properly exist without a variation of the verb, as the infinitive 
mood, which has no terminations different from those of the indicative. The 
decision of this point may not, by some grammarians, be thought of much 
consequence. But the rules which ascertain the propriety of varying or 
not varying the terminations of the verb, will certainly be deemed impor- 
tant. These rules may be well observed, without a uniformity of senti- 
ment respecting the nature and limits of the subjunctive mood.* 

Do the auxiliaries of the potential mood, when applied to the subjunctive, 
change the termination of the second person singular? When is it proper 
to vary the terminations of the second and third persons singular of the 
present tense ? Do the verb and auxiliaries of the past tenses, and the 
auxiliaries of the first future, undergo any alteration ? What exception? 
What is the opinion of some grammarians in regard to the extent of the 
subjunctive mood ? What is the opinion of other grammarians ? In which 
oi these opinions does the author concur ? 

8. 

" If thou may share in his labors, be " Unless thou can fairly support the 

thankful, and do it cheerfully." cause, give it up honorably." 

* We have stated, for tbe student's information, the different opinions of grammarians, respecting'the English 
enbjunctive mood; First, that which supposes there is no such mood in our language; Secondly, that which ex 
tends it no farther 'han the variations of the verb extend ; Thirdly, that which ue h .ive adop'ed, and explained 
at large, an<i which, in general, corresponds with the views of lhe m'St approved writers on English grammar 
We may add a Fourth opinion, which appears to possess, at least, much plausibility. This opinion admits the 
arranffemei.t we have given, with one variation, name y, that of assigning to the first tense of the subjunctive, 
two forms— 1st, that which simply denotes contingency ; as, " If tie desires it, I will perform the operation ,* 
that is, if he now desires it. 2dly, that which denofes both contingency a d futurity as, " If he desire it. I will 
perform the operation ;" thit is, '< If he should hereafter desire it." This last theory of the subjunc ive mood 
claims the merit of rendering the whole system of the moods consistent and regular; of being more conformable 
than any other to the definition of the subjunctive, and of not referring to the indicative mood forms of expre* 
liou, which ill accord with its simplicity and nature. Perhaps this theory will War a strict examination. 






SYNTAX. 177 

" Though ihcu might huve foreseen " Unless thou should make a timely 

the Sanger, thou couldst not have retreat, the danger will be una- 

avoided it." voidable." 

"If thou could convince him, he " I have labored and weaned myself 

would not act accordingly." that thou may be at ease.' 

" If thou would improve in know- " He enlarged on those dangers, that 



in 
ledae, be diligent." thou should avoid them.' 



9. Some conjunctions have correspondent conjunctions belonging to them, 
either expressed or understood ; as, 

1st. Though— yet, nevertheless ; as, " Though he was rich, yet for our sakee he 
became poor ;" " T/iough powerful, he was meek." 

2d. Whether— or ; as, " Whether he will go or not, I cannot tell." 

3d. Either — or ; as. " T will either send it, o'r bring it myself." 

4th. Neither— nor ; as, " Neither he nor I am able to compass it." 

5th. As—as; expressing a comparison of equality ; as," She is as amiable as her 
sister; and as much respected." 

Gth. As— so; expressing a comparison of equality; as, " As the stars, so shall thy 
seed be." 

7th. As—s*; expressing a comparison of quality ; as, " As the one dieth, so dieth 
the other ;" " As he reads, they read." 

8th. So— as; with a verb expressing a comparison of quality; as, "To see thy 
glory, 50 as I have seen thee in the sanctuary." 

9th. So—as; with a negative and an adjective expressing a comparison of quanti- 
ty ; as, " Pompey was not so great a general as Caesar, nor so great a man." 

10th. So — that ; expressing a consequence ; as, " He was so fatigued, that he could 
scarcely move." 

The conjunctions or and nor may often be used, with nearly equal pro- 
priety. " The king, whose character was not sufficiently vigorous nor deci- 
sive, assented to the measure." In this sentence, or would, perhaps, have 
been better ; but, in general, nor seems to repeat the negation in the former 
part of the sentence, and, therefore, gives more emphasis to the expression. 

Are there any conjunctions which have correspondent conjunctions belong- 
ing to them ? Give examples. 

9. 

11 Neither the cold or the fervid, but " The dog in the manger would not 

characters uniformly warm, are eat the hay himself, nor suffer 

formed for friendship.'' the ox to eat it." 

•• They are both praiseworthy, and ' As far as I am able to judge, the 

one is equally (1.) deserving as book is well written." 

the other." "We should faithfully perform the 

" He is not as diligent and learned trust committed to us, or ingenu- 

as his brother." ously relinquish the charge." 

" I will present it to him myself, or "He is not as eminent, and as much 

direct it to be given to him." esteemed, as he thinks himself 

" Neither despise or oppose what to be." 

thou dost not understand." " The work is a dull performance, 

•■ The house is not as commodious and is neither capable of pleasing 

as we expected it would be." (3.) the understanding, or the im- 

" 1 must, however, be so candid to agination. 

own I have been mistaken." " There is no condition so secure, a? 

41 There was something so amiable, cannot admit of change." 

and yet so piercing in his look, as " This is an event which nobody pre- 
(2.) affected me at once with love sumes upon, or is so sanguine to 
and terror." hope for." 
" I gained a son ; " We are generally pleased with anf 

And such a son as all men hailed me little accomplishments of body or 

happy." mind." 

10. Conjunctions are often improperly used, both singly and in pairs. The 
following are examples of this impropriety : " The relations are so uncertain, 
as that they require a great deal of examination ;" It should be, " that they 
require," &c. " There was no man so sanguine, who did not apprehend 

{!.) For "equally* read "as.* (2.) "that it" (3.) " neither that* 

M 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

some ill consequences ; it ought to be, " so sanguine as not to apprehend,"' 
&c. ; or, " no man, how sanguine soever, who did not," &c. " To trust in 
him is no more but to acknowledge his power." " This is no other but the 
gate of paradise." In both of these instances, but should be than. " Wo 
should sufficiently weigh the objects of our hope ; whether they are such as 
we may reasonably expect from them what they propose," &c. It ought to 
be, " that we may reasonably," &c. " The duke had not behaved with that 
loyalty as he ought to have done ;" " with which he ought." " In the order 
as they lie in his preface;" it should be, "in order as they lie;" or, "in^ 
the order in which they lie." " Such sharp replies that cost him his life y 
" as cost," &c. " If he were truly that scarecrow, as he is now commonly 
painted ;" " such a scarecrow," &c. " I wish I could do that justice to hia 
memory, to oblige the painters,"* &,c. ; " do such justice as to oblige," &,c. 

Will you repeat this Note, and give an example under it ? What is said 
©f sentences beginning with the conjunctive form of the verb ? Give an ex- 
ample. When has as the force of a relative pronoun ? (1.) Give an example. 



There is a peculiar neatness in a sentence beginning with the conjunctive form 
of a verb. " Were there no difference, there would be no choice." 

A double conjunctive, in two correspondent clauses of a sentence, is sometimes 
made use of; as, " Had he done this, he had escaped ;" " Had the limitations on the 
prerogative been, in his time, quite fixed and certain, his integrity had made him 
regard as sacred the boundaries of the constitution." The sentence in the common 
form would have read thus: "If the limitations on the prerogative had seen," &c. 
" his integrity would have made him regard," &c. 

The particle as, when it is connected with the pronoun such, has the force of a 
relative pronoun , as, " Let such as presume to advise others, look well to their own 
conduct ;" which is equivalent to, " Let them who presume," &c. But when used by 
itself, this particle is to be considered as a conjunction, or perhaps as an adverb. 

Our language wants a a conjunction adapted to a familiar style, equivalent to not- 
withstanding. The words for all that seem to be too low. " The word was in the 
mouth of every one, but, for all that, the subject may still be a secret." 

In regard that is solemn and antiquated ; because would do much better in the fol- 
lowing sentence : " It cannot be otherwise, in regard that the French prosody differs 
from that of every other language." 

The word except is far preferable to other than. " It admitted of no effectual cure 
other than amputation." Except is also to be preferred to all but. " They were 
happy, all but the stranger." In the two following phrases, the conjunction as is 
improperly omitted : " Which nobody presumes, or is so sanguine to hope." " I 
must, however, be so just , to own." 

A 

The conjunction that is often properly omitted, and understood; as, "I beg you 
would come to me;" "See thou do it not;" instead of " that you would," "that 
thou do." But in the following, and many sivnilar phrases, this conjunction were 
much better inserted : " Yet it is reason the memory of their virtues remain to pos- 
terity." It should be, " Yet it is just that the memory," &c. 

10. 

"Be ready to succor such persons "He gained nothing further by his 

who (2.) need thy assistance." speech, hut only (6.) to be com r 

44 The matter was no sooner pro- mended for his eloquence." 

posed, but (3.) he privately with- "He has little more of the scholar 

drew to consider it." besides the name." 

" He has too much sense and pru- " He has little of the scholar than th« 

dence than to become a dupe to name." 

such artifices." "They had no sooner risen, bat 

" It is not sufficient that our conduct they applied themselves to their 

as far as it respects others, ap- studies." 

pears to be lanexceptionahle." " From no other institution, besides 

ei The resolution was not the less the admirable one of juries, could 

fixed, that (4.) the secret was vet so great a benefit be expected." 

communicated to very few." " Those savage people seemed ta 

"He opposed the most remarkable have no other element but war." 

corruptions of the church of Rome, 'Such men that act treacherously 

so (5.) as that his doctrines were ought to be avoided." 
embraced by great numbers." 

tf.) 65S. (2.) "as." (3.) "than." (40 "though" (5.) " and on this account .* (6.) "exc&pL* 



SYNTAX. 179 

"* Germany ran the same risk as " No errors are so trivial, but ihey 
Italy had done." (1.) deserve to be corrected." 

RULE XXIX. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 

RULE XX. 

When die qualities of different things are compared, the 
latter noun or pronoun is not governed by the conjunc- 
tion than or as, but agrees with the verb, or is governed 
by the verb or the preposition, expressed or understood; 
as, "Thou art wiser than I;" that is, "than 1 am." 
" They loved him more than me ;" that is, " more than 
they loved me." " The sentiment is well expressed by 
Plato, but much better by Solomon than Hm;" that is, 
" than by him." 

The propriety or impropriety of many phrases, in the preceding as well 
as in some other forms, may be discovered, by supplying the words that are 
not expressed ; which will be evident from the following instances of errone- 
ous construction: "He can read better than me." "He is as good as 
her." " Whether I be present or no." " Who did this ? Me." By sup- 
plying the words understood, in each of these phrases, their impropriety 
and governing rule will appear; as, " better than I can read ;" " as good 
as she is;" " present or not present ;" " I did it." 

" Thou art wiser than I." Will you parse /, and repeat the rule for it ? 
" In some respects, we have had as "They know how to write as well 
many advantages as them ; but as him ; but he is a much better 

in the article of a good library, grammarian than them." 

they have had a greater privilege " Though she is not so learned as 
than us." kirn, she is as much beloved and 

" The undertaking was much better respected." 

executed by his brother than he." " These people, though they possess 

11 They are much greater gainers than more shining qualities, are not so 

me by this unexpected event." proud as him, nor so vain as her." 

1. By not attending to this rule, many errors have been committed; a 
number of which is subjoined, as a further caution and direction to the 
learner : " Thou art a much greater loser than me by his death." " She 
suffers hourly more than me." " We contributed a third more than the 
Dutch, who were obliged to the same proportion more than us." "King 
Charles, and, more than him, the duke and the popish faction, were at 
liberty to form new schemes." " The drift of all his sermons was, to pre- 
pare the Jews for the reception of a prophet mightier than him, and whose 
shoes he was not worthy to bear." " It was not the work of so eminent 
an author as him to whom it was first imputed." " A stone is heavy, and 
the sand weighty ; but a fool's wrath is heavier than them both." " If the 
king give us leave, we may perform the office as well as them that do." 
In these passages, it ought to be, " /, we, he, they" respectively. 

When the relative who immediately follows than, it seems to form an ex- 
ception to the 29th Rule ; for, in that connection, the relative must be in the 
objective case ; as, " Alfred, than whom a greater king never reigned," &c. 
" Beelzebub, than whom, Satan excepted, none higher sat," &c. It is re- 
markable that, in such instances, if the personal pronoun were used, it would 
be in the nominative case; as, "A greater king never reigned than he," 
that is, " thanhewas" " Beelzebub, than he" &,c, that is, " than he sat. ." 
The phrase than whom is, however, avoided by the best modern writers. 

"She suffers hourly more than me." Will you correct this sentence, 
and explain why it is wrong ? 

(L) "that they do not" 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. 

u Who betrayed her companion ?" " Whether he will be learned or no, 
" Not me." must depend on his application. ' 

u Who revealed the secrets he ought " Charles XII. of Sweden, than who 
to have concealed ?" " Not him." (1.) a more courageous person 

u Who related falsehoods to screen never lived, appears to have been 

herself, and to bring an odium destitute of the tender sensibili- 

upon others ?" " Not me ; it was ties of nature." 

her" ■ ' Salmasius"(a more learned man than 

H There is but one in fault, and that him has seldom appeared) was 

is me." not happy at the close of life." 

BTJLE XXX. 

Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, 
RULE XXI. 

To avoid disagreeable repetitions , and to express our ideas 
in a feiv words, an ellipsis, or omission of some ivords, 
is frequently admitted. Instead of saying, " He was a 
learned man, he was a wise man, and he was a good 
man," ice make use of the ellipsis, and say, " He was a 
learned, wise and good man." 

When the omission of words would obscure the sentence, 
iceaken its force, or be attended icith an impropriety, 
they must be expressed. In the sentence, " Weare apt 
to love who love us," the word them should be supplied. 
" A beautiful field and trees," is not proper language ; 
it should be, " Beautiful fields and trees," or, "A beauti- 
ful field and fine trees." 

Almost all compounded sentences are more or less elliptical ; some ex- 
amples of which may be seen under the different parts of speech. 

"I gladly shunned who gladly fled from me." Will you correct this 
sentence, and repeat the latter part of Rule XXX, by which the correction 
is made ? 

" I gladly shunned (2.) who gladly fell a victim to the madness of 

fled from me." the people, truth, virtue, religion, 

11 And this is (3.) it men mean by fell with him." (5.) 

distributive justice, and is proper- " The fear of death, nor hope of 

ly termed equity." life, could make him submit to a 

" His honor, interest, religion, were dishonest action." (6.) 

all embarked in this under- "An elegant house and furniture 

taking." (4.) were, by this event, irrecover- 

u When so good a man as Socrates ably lost to the owner." (7.) 

1. The ellipsis of the article is thus used : " A man, woman, and child ;" 
that is, "a man, a woman, and a child." " A house and garden ;" that is, 
" a house and a garden." " The sun and moon ;" that is, " the sun and 
the moon." " The day and hour ;" that is, " the day and the hour." In 
all these instances, the article being once expressed, the repetition of it 
becomes unnecessary. There is, however, an exception to this observa- 
tion, when some peculiar emphasis requires a repetition ; as in the following 
sentence : " Not only the year, but the day and the hour." In this case, 
the ellipsis of the last article would be improper. When a different form 
of the article is requisite, the article is also properly repeated ; as, "a house 
nnd an orchard," instead of " a house and orchard." 

fl.) " whom."— Note XX. (648.) (2.) " him who » (3.) " that which." (4.) Insert " h%t* 

fcncemoreu (5.; " a?id" twic (6J " Neither— nor." (7.) "muc/i costly." 



SYNTAX. 181 

Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the article ? I3 it necessary ta 
repeat the article in each of these instances ? 

1. 

" These rules are addressed to none with an unimproved, or with a 

but the intelligent and the (1.) at- corrupted, mind." 

tentive." "The more I see of his conduct, I 

66 The gay and the pleasing are, some- like him better." 

times, the most insidious, and the " It is not only the duty,, but interest, 

most dangerous companions." of young persons to be studious 

Zi Old age will prove a joyless and a and diligent.' 
dreary season, if we arrive at it 

2. The noun is frequently omitted in the following manner : " The laws 
of God and man ;" that is, " The laws of God and the laws of man." In 
some very emphatical expressions, the ellipsis should not be used ; as, 
"Christ, the power of God, and the wisdom of God;" which is more 
emphatical than " Christ the power and wisdom of God." 

Will you give an example of the omission of the nou?i? Should this 
ellipsis always be used ? 

2. 

"These counsels were the dictates entertainment, when others leave 

of virtue, arid the dictates (2.) of us." (4.) 

true honor." " Without firmness, nothing that is 

" Avarice and cunning may acquire great can be undertaken ; that is 

an estate, but avarice and cunning difficult or hazardous, can be ac- 

cannot gain friends." (3.) complished." (5.) 

" A taste for useful knowledge will "The anxious man is the votary of rich. 

provide for us a great and noble es; the negligent of pleasure." (6.) 

3. The ellipsis of the adjective is used in the following manner : "A de- 
lightful garden and orchard ;" that is, " A delightful garden and a delight- 
ful orchard." " A little man and woman;" that is, " a little man and a 
little woman." In such elliptical expressions as these, the adjective ought 
to have exactly the same signification, and to be quite as proper, when 
joined to the latter substantive as to the former ; otherwise th« ellipsis 
should not be admitted. 

Sometimes the ellipsis is improperly applied to nouns of different num- 
bers ; as, " A magnificent house and gardens." In this case it is better to 
use another adjective ; as, " A magnificent house, and fino gardens." 

Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the adjective ? What rule is 
to be observed in the use of this ellipsis ? 

3. 

"His crimes had brought him into " That species of commerce will pro- 
extreme distress and extreme duce great gain or loss." (10.) 
perplexity." (7.) " Many days, and even weeks, pass 

M He has an affectionate brother, and away unimproved." (10.) 

an affectionate sister, and they "This wonderful action struck the 

live in great harmony." (8.) beholders with exceeding (11.) 

"We must guard against too great se- astonishment." (10.) 

verity, and facility of manners."(9 ) " The people of this country possess 

li We should often recollect what the a healthy climate and soil." (9 ) 

wisest men have said and written " They enjoy also a free constitution 

concerning human happiness and and bws." (10.) 
vanity." (10.) 

4. The following is the ellipsis of the pronoun : " I love and fear him ;*■ 
that is," I love him, and I fear him." " My house and lands ;" that is, " My 
house, and my lands." In these instances, the ellipsis may take place with 
propriety ; but if we would be more express and emphatical, it must not be 
used ; as, " His friends and his foes ;" " My sons and my daughters." 

In some of the common forms of speech, the relative pronoun is usually 
omitted ; as, " This is the man they love," instead of, " This is the man 

(1.) Reject " the." (2.) "virtue and of true* (3.) Insert « they" in lie ptae of two imuns, 

(4. > Insert M entertainments." (5.) Insert " nothing" (6.) In<e--t " min. that *' (1.) K«;ec» an adpc 

8ve. (8.) Reject two words. (9.) Insert iwo words. (10.) Insert ai adjective. (Ii..» ^ er^eedxn^iy^ 

16 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

whom they love ;" " These are the goods they bought," for " These are 
the goods which they bought." 

In complex sentences, it is much better to have the relative pronoun ex- 
pressed ; as it is more proper to say, " The posture in which I lay," than 
11 In the posture I lay ;" " The horse on which I rode fell down," than 
" The horse I rode, fell down." 

The antecedent and the relative connect the parts of a sentence together ; 
and, to prevent obscurity and confusion, they should answer to each other 
with great exactness. " We speak that we do know, and testify that we have 
eeen." Here the ellipsis is manifestly improper, and ought to be supplied ; as, 
" We speak that which we do know, and testify that which we have seen." 
Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the pronoun? Can this ellipsis 
be properly used at all times ? 

4. 
" His reputation and his estate were " He is not only sensible and learned, 

both lost by gaming." (1.) but is religious too." (2.) 

" This intelligence not only excited ' The Chinese language contains an 
our hopes, but fears too." (2.) immense number of words ; and 

Si His conduct is not scandalous; and who would learn them must pos- 

that is the best can be said of it." sess a great memory." (2.) 

(3.) " By presumption and by vanity, we 

"This was the person whom calumny provoke enmity, and we incur 

had greatly abused, and sustained contempt." (1 .) 

the injustice with singular pa- " In the circumstances I was at that 
fience." (2.) time, my troubles pressed heavily 

11 He discovered some qualities in the upon me." (4.) 

youth of a disagreeable nature, "He had destroyed his constitution, 
and to him were wholly unac- by the very same errors that so 

countable." (2.) many have been destroyed." 

" The captain had several men died 
in his ship of the scurvy." (2.) 

5. The ellipsis of the verb is used in the following instances : " The man 
was old and crafty ;" that is, " The man was old, and the man was crafty." 
" She was young, and beautiful, and good ;" that is, " She was young, she 
was beautiful, and she was good." " Thou art poor, and wretched, and 
miserable, and blind, and naked." If we would fill up the ellipsis in the 
last sentence, thou art ought to be repeated before each of the adjectives. 

If, in such enumeration, we choose to point out one property above the 
rest, that property must be placed last, and the ellipsis supplied ; as, " She 
is young and beautiful, and she is good." 

11 1 went to see and hear him," that is, " I went to see, and I went to hear 
him." In this instance, there is not only an ellipsis of the governing verb, 1 
went, but likewise of the sign of the infinitive mood, which is governed by it. 
Do, did, have, had, shall, will, may, might, arid the rest of the auxiliaries 
of the compound tenses, are frequently used alone to spare the repetition of 
the verb; as, "He regards his word, but thou dost not;" that is, "dose 
not regard it." " We succeeded, but they did not;" "did not succeed." 
" I have learned my task, but thou hast not ;" " hast not learned." " They 
must, and they shall be punished ;" that is, " they must be punished." 

Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the verb ? Suppose we wish to 
point out one property above the rest ? How are the auxiliaries sometimes 
used? 

5. 
]S He is temperate, he is disinterest- " Perseverance in laudable pursuits 
pA, ne is benevolent ; he is an will reward all our toils, and will 

ornament to his family, and a produce effects beyond our calcu- 

credit to his profession." (5.) lation." (7.) 

w Genuine virtue supposes our benev- "It is happy for us, when we can 
olence to be strengthened, and to calmly and deliberately look back 

be confirmed by principle." (6.) on the past, and can quietly an- 

ticipate the future." (7.) 



(1.) Reject a pronoun. (2.) Insert a pronoun. (3.) « that— that.'' (4.) Insert two word* 

£. J Reject six words, ?jad insert one. (6. ) Reject two words. (7.) Reject one word. 



SYNTAX. 183 

^The sacrifices of virtue will not only rules of virtue, not only would 

be rewarded hereafter, but re- they escape innumerable dan- 

compensed even in this life." (1.) gers, but command respect from 

M All those possessed of any office, the licentious themselves." (2.) 
resigned their former commis- " Charles was a man of learning, 

sion." (2.) knowledge, and benevolence ; 

" If young persons were determined and, what is still more, a true 

to conduct themselves by the Christian." (2.) 

6. The ellipsis of the adverb is used in the following manner: " He 
epoke and acted wisely ;" that is, " He spoke wisely, and he acted wisely." 
" Thrice I went and offered my service;" that is, " Thrice I went, and 
thrice I offered my service." 

How is the ellipsis of the adverb used ? 

6. 
'' The temper of him who is always M How a seed grows up into a tree, 
in the bustle of the world, will and the mind acts upon the body, 

be often ruffled, and be often are mysteries which we cannot 

disturbed." (3.) explain." (5.) 

Zi We often commend imprudently, "Verily there is a reward for the 
as well as censure imprudent- righteous. There is a God that 

ly." (4.) judgeth in the earth." (5.) 

7. The ellipsis of the preposition, as well as of the verb, is seen in the 
following instances: "He went into the abbeys, halls, and public build- 
ings ;" that is, " He went into the abbeys, he went into the halls, and he 
went into the public buildings." " He also went through all the streets and 
lanes of the city;" that is, "through all the streets, and through all the 
lanes," &c. "He spoke to every man and woman there;" that is, "to 
every man and to every woman." " This day, next month, last year;" 
that is, " On this day, in the next month, in the last year." " The Lord 
do that which seemeth him good ;" that is, " which seemeth to him." 

Will you give an example of the ellipsis of the preposition and the verb ? 

7. 
" Changes are almost continually gins smiled at what they blush- 

taking place, in men and in man- ed before." (5.) 

ners, in opinions and in customs, " They are now reconciled to what 
in private fortunes and public they could not formerly be 

conduct." (5.) (3.) prompted, by any considera- 

" Averse either to contradict or tions." (5.) 

blame, the too complaisant man "Censure is the tax which a man pays 

goes along with the manners that the public for being eminent." (5.) 

prevail." (5.) " Reflect on the state of human life, 

*' By this habitual indelicacy, the vir- and the society of men as mixed 

with good and with evil." (5.) 

8. The ellipsis of the conjunction is as follows : " They confess the power 
wisdom, goodness, and love of their Creator;" that is, " the power, and 
wisdom, and goodness, and love of," &c. " Though I love him, I do not 
flatter him ;" that is, " Though I love him, yet I do not flatter him." 

Will you give an example of the ellipsis of a conjunction ? 

S. 

*' In all stations and conditions, the " Religious persons are often unjust- 
important relations take place, of ly represented as persons of 
masters and servants, and hus- romantic character, visionary 
bands and wives, and parents and notions, unacquainted with the 
children, and brothers and friends, world, unfit to live in it." (1.) 
and citizens and subjects." (6.) " No rank, station, dignity of birth, 

"Destitute of principle, he regarded possessions, exempt men from 

neither his family, nor his friends, contributing their share to public 

nor his reputation." (4.) utility." (7.) 

9. The ellipsis of the interjection is not very common : it, however, is some- 
times used ; as, " Oh, pity and shame !" that is, " Oh, pity ! oh, shame !" 

(1.) Insert three words. (2.) Insert two words. (3.) Reject two words. (4.) Reject one word, 

jp. ) Insert one word. (6.) Reject four words. {7.) " nor— no— nor any." 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

As the ellipsis occurs in almost eveiy sentence in the English langua^ 
numerous examples of it might be given ; but only a few more can be ad- 
mitted here. 

In the following instance, there is a very considerable one: "He will 
often argue, that if this part of our trade were well cultivated, we should 
gain from one nation; and if another, from another;" that is, "He will 
often argue, that if this part of our trade were well cultivated, we should 
gain from one nation ; and if another part of our trade were well cultivated, 
we should gain from another nation." 

The following instances, though short, contain much of the ellipsis : "Wo 
is me ;" i. e. " wo is to me." " To let blood ;" i. e. " to let out blood." 
" To let down ;" i. e. " to let it fall or slide down." " To walk a mile ;" 
I e. "to walk through the space of a mile." " To sleep all night ;" i. e, 
6 to sleep through all the night." " To go a fishing ;" " To go a hunt- 
ing ;" i. e. " to go on a fishing voyage or business ;" " to go on a hunting 
party." " I dine at two o'clock ;" i. e. " at two of the clock." " By sea, 
by land, on shore ;" i. e. " by the sea, by the land, on the shore." 

What is said of the ellipsis of the interjection? 

9. 

"Oh, my father! Oh, my friend ! how " Oh, piety ! virtue ! how insensible 
great has been my ingratitude !" have I been to your charms!" 

(1 (2.) 

10. The examples that follow are produced to show the impropriety of 
ellipsis in some particular cases. " The land was always possessed, during 
pleasure, by those intrusted with the command;" it should be, "those 
persons intrusted ;" or, " those who were intrusted." "If he had read far- 
ther, he would have found several of his objections might have been spared ;" 
that is, " he would have found that several of his objections," &c. " There 
is nothing men are more deficient in,£han knowing their own characters ;" 
it ought to be, " nothing in which men," and, "than in knowing." "I 
scarcely know any part of natural philosophy would yield more variety and 
use ;" it should be, " which would yield," &c. " In the temper of mind 
he was then ;" that is, " in which he then was." " The little satisfaction 
and consistency to be found in most of the systems of divinity I have met 
with, made me betake myself to the sole reading of the Scriptures ;" it 
ought to be, " which are to be found," and which I have met with." " He 
desired they might go to the altar together, and jointly return their thanks 
to whom only they were due ;" that is, " to him to whom," &c. 

" There is nothing men are more deficient in, than in knowing their own 
characters." Will you correct this sentence ? 

10. 

Ihat is a property most men have, " Most, if not all, the royal family 

or at least may attain." (3.) had quitted the place." (2.) 

" Why do ye that which is not lawful " By these happy labors, they who 

to do on the sabbath days ?" (2.) sow and reap, will rejoice to- 

" The show bread, which is not lawful gether." (4.) 
to eat, but for the priests alone. "(2.) 

KULE XXXI. 
Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, ?J 

RULE XXII. 

Jill the parts of a sentence should correspond to each others 
) a regular and dependent construction, throughout, should 
be carefully preserved. The following sentence is, there- 
fore, inaccurate : " He was more beloved, but not so 
much admired, as Cinthio." It should be, " He was more 
beloved than Cinthio, but not so much admired." 

tl.) Reject one word. (2.) Insert one word. (3.) Insert three word*. (4.) Icser* two words. 



SYNTAX. 155 

The first example under this rule presents a most irregular construction, namely, 
• 4 He was more beloved as Cinthio." The words more and so much are ver> mi pro 
perly stated as having the same regimen. In correcting such sentences, it is not 
necessary to supply the latter ellipsis; because it cannot lead to any discordant or 
improper construction, and the supply would often be harsh or inelegant. 

As the 31st rule comprehends all the preceding rules, it may, at the first view, 
appear to be too general to be useful. But, by ranging under it a number of sen- 
tences peculiarly constructed, we shall perceive that it is calculated to ascertain tho 
true grammatical construction of many modes of expression, which none of the 
particular rules can surficienfly explain. 

" This dedication may serve for almost any book, that has, is, or shall be publish- 
ed ;" it ought to be. "that has been, or shall be published." " He was guided by 
interests always different, sometimes contrary to, those of the community ;" " dif- 
ferent from;" or, "always different from those of the community, and sometimes 
contrary to them." " Will it be urged that these books are as old, or even older 
%han tradition ?" the words " as old," and " older," cannot have a common regimen; 
4t should be, " as old as tradition, or even older." " It requires few talents to which 
Baost men are not born, or at least may not acquire ;" " or which, at least, they may 
not acquire." " The court of chancery frequently mitigates and breaks the teeth of 
the common law." In this construction, the first verb is said to mitigate the teeth 
of the common law, which is an evident solecism. " Mitigates the common law, 
and breaks the teeth of it." would have been grammatical. 

" They presently grow into good humor and good language towards the crown ; w 
"grow into good language," is very improper. "There is never wanting a set of 
evil instruments, who, either out of mad zeal, private hatred, or filthy lucre, are 
always ready," &/*.. We say properly, " A man acts out of mad zeal," or, " out of 
private hatred;" but we cannot say, if we would speak English, "he acts out of 
filthy lucre." "To double her kindness and caresses of me:" the word kindness 
requires to be followed by either to or for, and cannot be construed with the preposi- 
tion of. " Never was man so teased, or suffered half the uneasiness, as I have done 
this evening :" the first and third clauses, namely, " never was man so teased," " as 
I have done this evening," cannot be joined without an impropriety; and to con- 
nect the second and third, the word that must be substituted for as ; " or suffered 
half the uneasiness that I have done ;" or else, "half so much uneasiness as I havo 
suffered." 

The first part of the following sentence abounds with adverbs, and those such as 
are hardly consistent with one another : " How much soever the reformation of this 
degenerate age is almost utterly to be despaired of, we may yet have a more com- 
fortable prospect of future times." The sentence would be more correct in the 
following form: " Though the reformation of this degenerate age is nearly to ba 
despaired of," &c. 

" Oh ! shut not up my soul with the sinners, nor my life with the bloodthirsty ; in 
whose hands is wickedness, and their right hand is full of gifts." As the passage 
introduced by the copulative conjunction and, was not intended as a continuation 
of the principal and independent part of the sentence, but of the dependent part, the 
relalive whose should have been used instead of the possessive their ; namely, " and 
whose right hand is full of gifts." 

" Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered into the heart of man, 
the things which God hath prepared for them that love him." There seems to be 
an impropriety in this instance, in which the same noun serves in a double capacity, 
performing at the same time the offices both of the nominative and objective cases. 
" Neither hath it entered into the heart of man to conceive the things," &c. would 
have been regular. 

" We have the power of retaining, altering, and compounding those images which 
we have once received, into all the varieties of picture and vision." It is very 
proper to say, " altering and compounding those images which we have once 
received, into all the varieties of picture and vision ;" but we cannot with propriety 
say. " retaining them into all the varieties;" and yet, according to the manner in 
which the words are ranged, this construction is unavoidable : for retaining, altering, 
and compounding are participles, each of which equally refers to and governs the 
subsequent noun-^those images; and that noun, again, is necessarily connected with 
the following preposition, into. The construction might easily have been rectified, 
by disjoining the participle retaining from the other two participles, in this way : 
"We have the power of retaining those images which wo have once received, and 
of altering and compounding them into all the varieties of picture and vision ;" or, 
perhaps, better thus : "We have the power of retaining, altering, and compounding 
those images which we have once received, and of forming them into all the varie- 
ties of picture and vision." 

Why is the first example under this rule inaccurate ? " This dedication 
may serve for almost any book, that has, is, or shall be published/' Will 
you point out the inaccuracies in this sentence, and correct them ? 

16* 



J 86 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Several alterations and additions 
have been made to the work." (1.) 

The first proposal was essentially 
different, and inferior to the se- 
cond." (2.) 

He is more bold and active, but not 
so wise and studious as his com- 
panion." (3.) 

Thou hearest the sound of wind, 
but thou canst not tell whence it 
cometh, and whither it goeth." 

Neither has he, nor any other per- 
sons, suspected so much dissimu- 
lation." (4.) 

The court of France or England 
was to have been the umpire." (5.) 

In the rei<m of Henry II. all foreign 
commodities were plenty in Eng- 
land." (6.) 

There is no talent so useful towards 
success in business, or which puts 
men more out of the reach of ac- 
cidents, than that quality gener- 
ally possessed by persons of cool 
temper, and is, in common lan- 
guage, called discretion." (7.) 

The first project was to shorten dis- 
course, by cutting polysyllables 
into one." (8.) 

I shall do all I can to persuade 
others to take the same measures 
for their cure which I have." (9.) 

The greatest masters of critical 
learning differ among one an- 
other:' 

Micaiah said, If thou certainly re- 
turn in peace, then hath not the 
Lord spoken by me." (10.) 

I do not suppose, that we Britons 
want a genius, more than the 
rest of our neighbors." (10.) 

; The deaf man whose ears were 
opened, and his tongue loosened, 
doubtless glorified the great Phy- 
sician." (11.) 



" Groves, fields, and meadows are, at 
any season of the year, pleasant 
to look upon ; but never so much 
as in the opening of the spring." 
(12.) 

" The multitude rebuke t*iem, because 
they should hold their peace." 

" The intentions of some of these phi- 
losophers, nay, of many, might 
and probably were good." (13.) 

" It was an unsuccessful undertak- 
ing ; which, although it has failed, 
is no objection at all to an enter- 
prise so well concerted." (14.) 

" The reward is his due, and it has 
already, or will hereafter be given 
to him." (15.) 

" By intercourse with wise and expe- 
rienced persons, who know the 
world, we may improve and rub 
off the rust of a private and retir- 
ed education." (16.) 

" Sincerity is as valuable, and even 
more valuable, than knowledge." 
(17.) 

" No person was ever so perplexed, 
or sustained the mortifications, as 
he has done to-day." (18.) 

" The Romans gave not only the 
freedom of the city, but capacity 
for employments, to several towns 
in Gaul, Spain, and Germany." 
(19.) 

u Such writers have no other standard 
on which to form themselves, ex- 
cept what chances to be fashion- 
able and popular." (20.) 

"Whatever we do secretly, shall be 
displayed and heard in the clear- 
est light." (21.) 

14 To the happiness of possessing a 
person of so uncommon merit, 
Boethius soon had the satisfaction 
of obtaining the highest honor his 
country could bestow." 



(1.) " This work has received," &c. (2.) " was inferior to the second, and— from it." (3.) " active 

than his." (4.) Insert "have." (5.) " or that oj "." (6.) " plentiful." (7.) Insert "more'* 

and u which." (S.) " by reducing— to vjords of one syllable " (9.) Insert a participle. (10.) Re- 

ject one word. (11 .) Insert two words, and reject one. (12.) Insert "so." (13.) Insert " have been." 

Jl4.) " the failure of which t'y, however." (15.) Insert " been." (16.) End wi'h, "and rub off its rust." 
(17.) "as knowledge, and." (18.) Insert "' been" for "done." and end with "mm* mortification." 

{19.) " the inhabitants of." (20.) Rejec: one word. <&l.) " displai&d in the clearest." 



PROSODY. 



Prosody consists of two parts: the former teaches the true pro- 
nunciation of words, comprising accent, quantity, emphasis, 
pause, and tone ; the latter, the laws of versification. 



OF PRONUNCIATION. 

OF ACCENT. 

Accext is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on a certain letter or 
syllable in a word, that it may be better heard than the rest, or distinguished 
from them ; as, in the word presume, the stress of the voice must be on tho 
letter u, and second syllable sume, which take the accent. 

OF QUANTITY. 

The quantity of a syllable is that time which is occupied in pronouncing 
it. It is considered long or short. 

A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on the vowel, which occa- 
sions it to be slowly joined in pronunciation with the following letter ; as, 
fall, tale, mood, house, feature. 

A syllable is short, when the accent is on the consonant, which occasions 
the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter ; as, ant, bonnet, hunger. 

A long syllable generally requires double the time of a short one in pro- 
nouncing it ; thus mate and nole should be pronounced as slowly again as 
mat and not. 

OF EMPHASIS. 

By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of voice, by which we 
distinguish some word or words on which we design to lay a particular stress, 
and to show how they affect the rest of the sentence. Sometimes the em- 
phatic words must be distinguished by a particular tone of voice, as well as 
by a greater stress. 

OF PAUSES. 

Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total cessation of the 
voice, during a perceptible, and in many cases, a measurable space of time. 

OF TONES. 

Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses, consisting in the 
modulation of the voice, the notes or variations which we employ in the 
expression of our sentiments. 



OF VERSIFICATION. 

Versification is the arrangement of a certain number and variety of 
syllables, according to certain laws. 

Rhyme is the correspondence of the last sound of one verse to the last 
sound of another. 

What is prosody ? How much more time does the pronunciation of x 

What is accen'? What is the quantity of a syllable? l->n§ syllable occupy, than a short o e ? What is em- 

When is a vowel or syllable long ? When short ? Give phasis ? What a-e pauses ? What are tones ? What if 

txamples of each. versification ? What is rhyme > 

(187) 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

OF POETICAL FEET. 

A certain number of syllables connected form a foot. They are called 
feet, because it is by their aid that the voice, as it were, steps along through 
the verse in a measured pace. 

All feet used in poetry consist either of two, or of three syllables, and are 
reducible to eight kinds — four of two syllables, and four of three — as follows : 

DISSYLLABLE. TRISYLLABLE. 

A Trochee, — ^ A Dactyl, — — *■* 

An Iambus, w — An Amphibrach, *-* — w 

A Spondee, An Anapasst, ^ w — 

A Pyrrhic, ^ - w A Tribrach, *-* >* <* 

A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unaccented ; as, 
"Hateful, pettish." 

An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the latter accented ; as, 
"Betray, consist." 

A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented; as, " The pale 
moon." 

A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables unaccented ; as, " on the tall 
tree." 

A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the two latter unaccented ; 
as, " Laborer, possible." 

An Amphibrach has the first and last syllables unaccented, and the mid- 
dle one accented; as, " Delightful, domestic." 

An Anapaest has fche two first syllables unaccented, and the last accented ; 
as, "Contravene, acquiesce." 

A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented; as, " Numerable, conquer- 
able." 

Some of these may be denominated principal feet, as pieces of poetry may 
be wholly or chiefly formed of any of them. Such are the Iambus, Trochee, 
Dactyl, and Anapaest. The others may be termed secondary feet, because 
their chief use is to diversify the numbers, and to improve the verse. 






PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing a written composition into sen- 
tences, by points or stops, for the purpose of marking" the different 
pauses which the sense and an accurate pronunciation require. 

The Comma represents the shortest pause ; the Semicolon, a pause double 
that of the comma; the Colon, double that of the semicolon; and the 
Period, double that of the colon. 

OF THE COMMA. 

The Comma usually separates those parts of a sentence which, though very 
closely connected in sense and construction, require a pause between them. 

Rule 1. — With respect to a simple sentence, the several words of which it 
is composed, have so near a relation to each other, that, in general, no points 
are requisite, except a full stop at the end of it ; as, " The fear of the Lord is the 
beginning of wisdom." " Every part of nature swarms with living creatures." 

A simple sentence, however, when it is a long one, and the nominative 
case is accompanied with inseparable adjuncts, may admit of a pause im- 
mediately before the verb ; as, " The good taste of the present age, has not 
allowed us to neglect the cultivation of the English language." ''To be 
totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real defect in character." 

What constitutes a poetical foot, and why is it so What is punctuation ? What does the comma repre- 

called? Of how many syllables do poetical feet con- sent? the semicolon? the colon? the period? 

sist ? How many kinds of feet are there, and what How is the comma used ? 

are they ? What is a Trochee? an Iambus? a Spon- " The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom.* 

dee? a Pyrrhic? a Dac'yl ? an Amphibrach? an Does this sentence require a pause in it? Will yon 

Anapaest? a Tribrach? Will you give an example give the rule for sentences of this kind? "The good 

of each ? Which are called principal feet ? Which taste of the present age has not allowed us to ne^'ect 

mcondaryP Why? the cultivation of the English language." Does thit 



PROSODY. 189 

Rule 2. — When the connection of the different parts of a simple sentence, 
Is interrupted by an imperfect phrase, a comma is usually introduced before 
the beginning and at the end of the phrase ; as, " I remember, with grati- 
tude, his goodness to me." " His work is, in many respects, very imper* 
feet." " It is, therefore, not much approved." But when the interruptions 
are slight and unimportant, the comma is better omitted ; as, " Flattery is 
certainly pernicious." " There is surely a pleasure in beneficence." 

Rule 3. — When two or more nouns occur in the same construction, they 
are parted by a comma ; as, " The husband, wife, and children, suffered ex- 
tremely. " " They took away their furniture, clothes, and stock in trade." 

From this rule there is mostly an exception, with regard to two nouns 
closely connected by a conjunction; as, " Virtue and vice form a strong 
contrast to each other." " Libertines call religion bigotry or superstition." 
If the parts connected are not short, a comma may be inserted, though the 
conjunction is expressed; as, "Romances may be said to be miserable 
rhapsodies, or dangerous incentives to evil." 

Rule 4. — Two or more adjectives, belonging to the same substantive, 
are likewise separated by commas; as, "Plain, honest truth w r ants no 
artificial covering." " David was a brave, wise, and pious man." 

But two adjectives immediately connected by a conjunction, are not sepa- 
rated by a comma ; as, " Truth is fair and artless." " We must be wise 
or foolish : there is no medium." 

Rule 5. — Two or more verbs, having the same nominative case, and im- 
mediately following one another, are also separated by commas ; as, " Vir- 
tue supports in adversity, moderates in prosperity." " In a letter we may 
advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss." 

Two verbs immediately connected by a conjunction, are an exception to 
the rule ; as, " The study of natural history expands and elevates the mind." 

Two or more participles are subject to a similar rule and exception. 

Rule 6. — Two or more adverbs immediately succeeding each other, must 
be separated by commas; as, "We are fearfully, wonderfully framed." 
" We mus»t act prudently, steadily, and vigorously." 

When two adverbs are joined by a conjunction, they are not parted by a 
comma ; as, " Some men sin deliberately and presumptuously." 

Rule 7. — When participles are followed by something that depends upon 
them, they are generally separated from the rest of the sentence by commas; 
as, "The king, approving the plan, put it in execution." "His talents, 
formed for great enterprises, could not fail of rendering him conspicuous." 

Rule 8. — When a conjunction is parted by a phrase or sentence from the 
verb to which it belongs, such intervening phrase has usually a comma at 
each extremity; as, "They set out early, and, before the dawn of day, 
arrived at the destined place." 

Rule 9. — Expressions in a direct address are separated from the rest of 
the sentence by commas; as, " My son, give me thy heart." "I am 
obliged to you, my friends, for your many favors." 

Rule 10. — The case absolute, and the infinitive mood absolute, are sepa- 
rated by commas from the body of the sentence ; as, " His father dying, 
he succeeded to the estate." " At length, their ministry performed, and 
race well run, they left the world in peace." " To confess the truth, I was 
much in fault." 

Rule 11. — Nouns in apposition, that is, nouns added to other nouns in the 
same case, by way of explication or illustration, when accompanied with ad- 
juncts, are set off by commas ; as, " Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, was 

••ntence admit of a pause? If so, where, and what is sta'e what points should be placed in this sentence,' 

the rule? "I remember with gratitude his goodness and the rule for it? State the exceptions, 

to me.'' Will you state how this sentence should be " The king approving the plan, put it in execution." 

pointed, and the rule for it? Will you state the ex- Will you st.te how this sentence should be pointed, 

cep'ion to this rule ? and the rule for i' ? 

" Plain honest truth wanti bo artificial covering." " Thry set out early and before the dawn of day ar- 

Will you state how this aentence should be pointed, rived at thedes'ined place." Will you state the rule 

and '-he rule for it? What exception is there to this for pointing this sentence, and others of a similar 

rule? '-Virtue s;ppor's in adversitv, modera'es in kind ? 

prosperi y." Will \ou state how this'sentence should " My *on give me thy heart." What is the rule fo» 

be pointed, and the rule for it ? State the exceptions to pointing this sentence ? 

Ihis rule. w Paid the apostle of the Gentiles was eminent 

«VVe are fearfully, wonderfully made.'' Will you for his zeal and knowledge" Will you state bo* 



190 ENGLIS-H GRAMMAR. 

eminent for his zeal and knowledge.' * " The butterfly, child of the mim 
mer, flutters in the sun." 

But if such nouns are single, or only form a proper name, they are not 
divided; as, "Paul the apostle." "The emperor Antoninus wrote an 
excellent book." 

Rule 12. — Simple members of sentences, connected by comparatives, 
are for the most part distinguished by a comma ; as, " As the hart panteth 
after the water-brooks, so doth my soul pant after thee." "Better is a 
dinner of herbs with iove, tlian a stalled ox and hatred with it." 

If the members in comparative sentences are short, the comma is, in gen- 
eral, better omitted ; as, " How much better is it to get wisdom Marc gold !" 

Rule 13. — When words are placed in opposition to each other, or with 
some marked variety, they require to be distinguished by a comma ; as, 

) " Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull ; 

Strong, without rage ; without o'ertlowing, full." 

" Good men, in this frail, imperfect state, are often found not only in 
union with, but in opposition to, the views and conduct of one another." 

Sometimes, when the word with which the last preposition agrees, is 
single, it is better to omit the comma before it ; as, " Many states were in 
alliance with, and under the protection of Rome." 

" The same rule and restriction must be applied when two or more nouns 
refer to the same preposition; as, "He was composed both under the 
threatening, and at the approach, of a cruel and lingering death." 

Rule 14. — A remarkable expression, or a short observation, somewhat 
in the manner of a quotation, may be properly marked with a comma; as, 
" It hurts a man's pride to say, I do not know." " Plutarch calls lying, 
the vice of slaves." 

Rule 15. — Relative pronouns are connective words, and generally admit 
a comma before them; as, "He preaches sublimely, who lives a sober, 
righteous, and pious life." 

But when two members or phrases are closely connected by a relative, re- 
straining the general notion of the antecedent to a particular sense, the comma 
should be omitted; as, " Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must make." 

The fifteenth rule applies equally to cases in which the relative is not ex- 
pressed, but understood; as., "It was from piety, warm and unaffected, 
that his morals derived strength." 

Rule 16. — A simple member of a sentence, contained within another, 
or following another, must be distinguished by a comma ; as, " To improve 
time whilst we are blessed with health, will smooth the bed of sickness." 
" Very often, while we are complaining of the vanity and the evils of 
human life, we make that vanity, and we increase those evils." 

If, however, the members succeeding each other are very closely con 
nected, the comma is unnecessary ; as, " Revelation tells us how we may 
attain happiness." 

When a verb in the infinitive mood follows its governing verb, with 
several words between them, those words should generally have a comma 
at the end of them ; as, " It ill becomes good and wise men, to oppose and 
degrade one another." 

Several verbs in the infinitive mood, having a common dependence, and 
succeeding one another, are also divided by commas ; as, " To relieve the 
indigent, to comfort the afflicted, to protect the innocent, to reward the 
deserving, are humane and noble employments." 

Rule 17. — When the verb to be is followed by a verb in the infinitive mood. 
I which, by transposition, might be made the nominative case to it, the former 

this sentence should be pointed, and the rule for it ? /imely who lives a sober righteous and pious 

"As the hart panteth after the water-brooks so doth life." Will you state how this sentence should be 

my soul pant after thee." How should this sentence pointed, and the rule for it ? Will you state when 

be pointed, and what is the rule for it ? the comma should be omitted ? Does this rule apply 

"Though deep yet clear though gentle yet not to cases in which the relative is expressed ? Give an 

dull " How should this sentence be pointed, and example. 

what is the rule for it? State the exception to "To improve time whilf we are olessed with 

this rule. " It hurts a man's pride to say I do health will smwoth the bed of sickness." How should 

not know." How should this sentence be pointed, this sentence be poin'ed, and what is the rule or Hi 

and what is the rule for it? "He preaches sub- Will you state the exceptions to this rule ? 



PROSODY. 191 

is generally separated from the latter verb by a comma ; as, " The most 
obvious remedy is, to withdraw from all associations with bad men." " The 
first and most obvious remedy against the infection, is, to withdraw from all 
associations with bad men." 

Rule 18. — Wher adjuncts or circumstances are of importance, and often 
when the natural order of them is inverted, they may be set off by com- 
mas ; as, " Virtue must be formed and supported, not by unfrequent acts, 
but by daily and repeated exertions." " Vices, like shadows, towards the 
evening of life, grow great and monstrous." 

Rule 19. — Where the verb is understood, a comma may often be pro- 
perly introduced. This is a general rule, which, besides comprising some 
of the preceding rules, will apply to many cases not determined by any of 
them; as, "From law arises security; from security, curiosity; from 
curiosity, knowledge." 

\ Rule 20. — The words nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, formerly, 
now,, lastly, once more, above all, on the contrary, in the next pla»e, in short, 
and all other words and phrases of the same kind, must generally be 
s?parated from the context by a comma. 

OF THE SEMICOLON. 

The Semicolon is used for dividing a compound sentence into two or 
more parts, not so closely connected as those which are separated by a 
comma, nor yet so little dependent on each other as those which are dis- 
tinguished by a colon. 

The semicolon is sometimes used when the preceding member of the 
sentence does not of itself give a complete sense, but depends on the fol- 
lowing clause; and sometimes when 'the sense of that member would be 
complete without the concluding one ; as in the following instance : " As 
the desire of approbation, when it works according to reason, improves the 
amiable part of our species in every thing that is laudable ; so nothing is 
more destructive to them when it is governed by vanity and folly." 

OF THE COLON. 

The colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts, less con* 
nected than those which are separated by a semicolon ; but not so indepen- 
dent as separate, distinct sentences. 

The colon may be properly applied in the three following cases : — 

1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but followed by 
some supplemental remark, or further illustration of the subject ; as, " Na- 
ture felt her inability to extricate herself from the consequences of guilt : 
the gospel reveals the plan of divine interposition and aid." 

2. When several semicolons have precedec}, and a still greater pause is 
necessary, in order to mark the connecting or concluding sentiment ; as, 
"A divine Legislator, uttering his voice from heaven; an almighty 
Governor, stretching forth his arm to punish or reward ; informing us of 
perpetual rest prepared hereafter for the righteous, and of indignation and 
wrath awaiting the wicked : these are the considerations which overawe the 
world, which support integrity, and check guilt." 

3. The colon is commonly used when an example, a quotation, or a 
speech is introduced ; as, " The Scriptures give us an amiable representa- 
tion of the Deity, in these words : ■ God is love.' " 



OF THE PERIOD. 

When a sentence is complete and independent, and not connected in con- 
struction with the following sentence, it is marked with a Period. 

M The most obvious remedy is to withdraw from all and what is the rule for it ? " He feared want hence 
associations with bad men. - ' Will you sta'e how this he overvalued riches." Will you state how this sen- 
sentence should be pointed, and the rule for it? tence should be pointed, and the rule for it ? 
" Vices like shadows towards the evening of life grow When is the semicoJon u«ed ? When is the colon 
great and monstrous." Will you give the rule for Used ? In what three cases may the colon be properly 
pointing this sentence, and apply it? "From law applied? 

arises security from security curiosity from curiosity When is the period used ? After abbre* iated wordi 

knowledge." How should this sentence be pointed, what point should be used ? Give examples. 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The period should be used after every abbreviated word; as, M. S., P. 
S., N. B., A. D., O. S., N. S. f &c. 



THE DASH. 
The Dash, though often used improperly )>y hasty and incoherent wri- 
ters, may be introduced with propriety {/here the sentence breaks off 
abruptly ; where a significant pause is required ; or where there is an un 
expected turn in the sentiment; as, "If thou art he, so much respected 
once — but, oh ! how fallen ! how degraded !" 

INTERROGATION. 

A Note of Interrogation is used at the end of an interrogative sentence: 
that is, when a question is asked ; as, " Who will accompany me ?" " Shall 
we always be friends ?" 

EXCLAMATION. 

The Note of Exclamation is applied to expressions of sudden emotion, 
surprise, joy, grief, &c, and also to invocations or addresses; as, "My 
friend! this conduct amazes me!" "Bless the Lord, O my soul! and 
forget not all his benefits !" 

The interrogation and exclamation points are indeterminate as to their 
quantity or time, and may be equivalent, in that respect, to a semicolon. 
a colon, or a period, as the sense may require. They mark an elevation 
of the voice. 



PARENTHESIS. 
A Parenthesis is a clause containing some necessary information, or use- 
ful remark, introduced into the body of a sentence obliquely, and which 
may be omitted without injuring the grammatical construction ; as, 

" Know, then, this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
Virtue, alone, is happiness below/' 

The parenthesis marks a moderate depression of the voice, and may be 
accompanied with every point which the sense would require if the paren- 
thetical characters were omitted. 



Directions respecting the Use of CAPITAL LETTERS. 

It is proper to begin with a capital, 

1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or any other piece 
of writing. 

2. The first word after a- period, and, if the two sentences are totally 
independent, after a note of interrogation or exclamation. 

3. The appellations of the Deity ; as, God, Jehovah, the Almighty, the 
Supreme Being, the Lord, Providence, the Messiah, the Holy Spirit. 

4. Proper names of persons, places, streets, mountains, rivers, ships? 
as, George, York, the Strand, the Alps, the Thames, the Seahorse. 

5. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places ; as, Grecian, 
Roman, English, French, Italian, &c 

6. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon, or when it is in a 
direct form ; as, " Always remember this ancient maxim : ' Know thyself.' ' 

The first word of an example may also very properly begin with a capital. 

7. Every substantive and principal word in the titles of books ; as, John- 
son's Dictionary of the English Language ; Thomson's Seasons. 

8. The first word of every line in poetry. 

9. The pronoun I and the interjection O are written in capitals. 

Other words, besides the preceding, may begin with capitals, when they 
are remarkably emphatical, or the principal subject of the composition. 

When may the dash be introduced wifh propriety ? What is n parenthesis? Give an examp!e in 

* Who will accompany me ?" What point should be which it is used with propriety. Should the voice 

Used at the end of this sentence ? be elevated or depressed in pronouncing a pare* 

To what is the note of exclamation applied ? Give thens ? 

•n example. Are the exclamation and interrogation When should capital letters be used ? 

tfoiuta determinate as to their quantity or time ? , 



19; 

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

BY EPES SARGENT. 



Sentence, Subject and Predicate. 

§ 1. A Sentence (from the Latin sententia, a thought or 
opinion) is such an arrangement of words as forms some 
complete sense; and by this is meant, that something is 
said about something; as, "The boy learns his lesson;" 
" The cat caught a mouse." 

If we merely utter the words boy, cat, the question is 
naturally put, "Well, what of them?" In order to make 
sense, we must say something of one or both of them ; that 
is, we must form a sentence. 

§ 2. Thus a sentence must contain at least two things : 
(1.) That which is mentioned ; (2.) What is spoken or 
said about that which is mentioned. 

That which is mentioned is called the Subject; the 
speech about the Subject is called the Predicate. 

§ 3. Analysis is the separation of a thing into its parts 
for examination. 

§ 4. There cannot be less than two words in a sentence; 
because nothing can be mentioned in less than one word, 
and no speech can take place about it in less than one 
word. In "Rain falls " we have an example of the 
shortest kind of sentence. 

§ 5. The Subject may be sometimes included in the form 
of the Predicate ; as in "Go!" (= go thou, or go ye) ; but 
in analysis the understood word must be supplied. 

§ 6. It will be seen that we cannot form a sentence by 
simply stringing together words that do not make sense : 
for example : — 

sky, star, moon ; snows, runs, found ; 
down, with, call, for, never, bright. 

The words wood ice do not form a sentence ; but wood 
burns is a sentence ; and ice melts is a sentence. 

§ 7. The question, " Who or what is mentioned ?" 
should draw forth in reply the Subject of the Sen- 
tence; and the question, "What is said of the 
Subject ?" should draw forth the Predicate. 

§ 8. The Subject generally comes before the Predicate, 
but not always; as, "Then came John," that is, "Then 
John came." Here John is the Subject. 

Copyright, 1S77, by J. H. Butler & Co. <■> , - , (J. I 



194 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

§ 9. The Subject may consist of more than one word, 
and the Predicate may consist of more than one word. 

§ 10. Write down the following sentences, and under- 
line the Predicate in eact : — 

1. Music soothes. 2. Industry enriches. 3. Gold glitters. 
4. Peter repented. 5. Nero fiddled. 6. Kings reign. 7. Carthage 
fell. 8. Rome remains. 

The two words in each of these sentences represent the 
two Chief Parts of Speech ; the first is called the Noun, 
the second, the Verb. 

§ 11. The words naming the Subjects are Nouns ; 
the words giving the Predicates are Verbs. 

Kinds of Sentence. 

§ 12. You may wonder that the term Predicate (coming 
from the Latin, prcedicatum, "to state or to declare") should 
be used for any other kind of sentence than one making 
a direct statement, as in "John ran." 

But, for the sake of convenience, we apply it to sen- 
tences of all kinds, including those which express a ques- 
tion, a command, or a wish. Thus: — 

(1) We may make a statement or declaration; as, 
"John ran." We then get a Declarative Sentence, 
(Latin, declaro, " I make clear ;" de 9 " from," and elarus, 
" clear.") 

(2) We may ask a question; as, "Did John run?" 
We then get an Interrogative Sentence. (Latin, 
inter'rogo, "I ask.") 

(3) We may express a command; as, "Run." We 
then get an Imperative Sentence. (Latin, im'pero, "I 
command.") 

(4) We may express a wish; as, "Oh that John would 
run!" We then get an Optative Sentence. (Latin, 
opto, "I wish.") 

(5) We may utter an exclamation; as, "How vivid is 
the lightning!" We then get an Exclamatory Sen- 
tence. (Latin, excla'mo, "I cry out") 

§13. State the character of the following sentences 
according to the foregoing rules : — 

1. The lamb skips. 2. Why are you late? 3. Charge, Chester, 
charge! 4. Oh that she were here! 5. May the skies be fair! 
6. How beautiful is night! 7. Bring forth the steed. 8. Life is 
short. 9. May good digestion wait on appetite! 10. Is he coming? 
11. What a fall was there! 12. Must we but weep? 13. Our 
fathers bled. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 195 

§ 14. We have seen that a sentence need not contain 
more than two words; as, "Rain falls." But on the other 
hand we may use several words in describing the thing 
mentioned, and as many more in making our assertion 
about it ; and there will still be only one sentence. 

"Alexander wept," is a Simple Sentence. "Alexander 
the Great is said to have wept bitterly," is also a Simple 
Sentence, though both the Subject and the Predicate are 
accompanied by modifying terms or Adjuncts. 

In the sentence, — 

"Every mountain || now hath found a tongue" 
the Predicate is not only the verb hath found, but that 
verb with its adjuncts now and a tongue; and the Sub- 
ject is not only the nominative mountain, but that noun 
with its adjunct every. 

§ 15. Clauses and Phrases. — If I say, "Till the bells 
rang," I convey a sort of meaning, but do not say any- 
thing that makes complete sense ; but if I say, " The men 
shouted till the bells rang," I say what you can understand, 
for it makes complete sense : it is a sentence, though not 
a Simple Sentence ; it is a Complex Sentence. 

" Till the bells rang," though it is a collection of words 
which contains a Subject (bells) and a Predicate (rang), 
depends for its complete meaning on the principal sen- 
tence, " The men shouted ;" and being thus dependent, or 
what is called' subordinate, the words do not form a sen- 
tence, but merely a Clause of a sentence. 

"The men shouted till the bells rang." Here, if the 
little word till were changed to the little word and, in- 
stead of a Complex Sentence there would be two 
Co-ordinate Sentences, or what some would call a 
Compound Sentence: "The men shouted and the 
bells rang." Here each sentence is, as you see, independ- 
ent of the other. 

I 13. A Clause (from the Latin, clausum, "to shut") 
is a collection of words containing- a Subject and 
Predicate, but not expressing- a complete thought; 

as, " When I shall return." 

§ 17. A Phrase (from the Greek, phrasis, " speech") 
is a collection of words not containing- a Subject 
and Predicate, and therefore not expressing a 
complete thought ; as, " The water rising rapidly." 

§ 18. In the following examples, state which are the 
Clauses and which are the Phrases :— 

1. On deck. 2. Before he arrived. 3. The sea being calm. 



196 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

4. If the wind is fair. 5. When the sun rises. 6. If Mary goes to 
school. 7. Time permitting. 

§ 19. The Subject. — Every noun can stand as the 
Subject of a sentence ; and no sentence can be 
without a noun, or words equivalent to a noun, as 
the Subject. 

§ 20. Other Parts of Speech than the Noun are used 
to indicate the person or thing spoken about; for instance, 
the Pronoun, the Adjective (with a noun understood), the 
Infinitive, and the Gerund (a participial form used as a 
noun). Thus we may say, "He went," "The good are the 
great," "To die is gain," "Dying is gain." 

Sometimes an entire phrase or sentence may be the 
equivalent of a noun, and form the Subject; as, "To be 
or not to be [that] is the question;" "That he erred is 
certain." 

§ 21. The Predicate. — Since the Predicate is that 
part of the sentence that makes a statement about the 
Subject, it must contain the chief Verb of the sentence. 

"When the Predicate is a single word, it is a Verb ; 

as, "Dogs bark." 

§ 22. Logically, if the Predicate says what the Subject 
is (as in " The man is a soldier"), the Predicate is a Noun. 
If the Predicate states a quality of the Subject (as in 
" The book is new"), the Predicate is an Adjective. & 

But if the Predicate is a Noun or an Adjective, it re- 
quires some other word to refer it to the Subject; and thi3 
must be a Verb, since that only has the power of referring. 
A Verb used for this purpose is called the Copula (Latin, 
a "couple" or "tie"). Only the verb to be in its finite 
forms, and a few other verbs, can be used as the Copula. 

In grammatical analysis we usually do not observe the 
logical distinction of the Copula. 

§ 23. Adjectives are sometimes put next to the noun 
to which they belong, and they are then said to be used 
attributively; as, "A red ball." 

§ 24. Adjectives are sometimes joined to nouns (or to 
pronouns) by means of am, is, are, was, were, and other 
parts of the verb to be (also by means of seem, become, 
grow, get, look, stay, remain, feel, &c.) : then the adjective 
is said to be used predicatively ; as, " The ball is red;" 
"The rose smells sweet" 

In these examples, adjectives at first appear to be 
attached to verbs, and so to take the place of adverbs. 
We also say, to keep a thing safe, to serve dinner up hot, 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 197 

to stand firm, to look fierce or angry. But in all these 
examples the adjective really belongs to the noun, and 
not to the verb. 

§ 25. The verbs (very few in number) thus taking a 
predicate Adjective or Noun are sometimes called 
Verbs of Incomplete Predication. 

The verb to be, when it does not mean to live, or exist, 
cannot form a Predicate. We must therefore join some 
word with it to make the Predicate ; as, " The earth is 
round." Here we predicate of the earth, roundness, not 
existence. 

§ 26. In the following sentences, what Adjectives are 
used attributively, and what predicatively ? 

1. There is a white cow. 2. He gave me two apples. 3. The 
peaches are ripe. 4. The nights are longest in winter. 5. The 
soldiers are weary. 6. Who gave you that pretty book ? 

Analysis of Simple Sentences. 

§ 27. The parts of a simple Sentence may be : — (a) 

In all sentences, 1. Subject ; 2. Predicate ; (6) Not in all 
sentences, 3. Object ; 4. Complements ; 5. Enlargements ; 
6. Extensions. 

§ 28. Enlargements. — All words attached to nouns, 
in whatever position in the sentence, are called Enlarge- 
ments. They are so named because they enlarge our 
knowledge of the thing spoken of. 

An enlargement may be: — 

(1) An adjective; as, "Sharp words give offence;" 
"Short accounts make long friendships." 

(2) A noun or pronoun in the possessive case; as, 
"John's hat is lost ; " "His coat is torn." 

(3) An adjective phrase; as, "A man of wisdom is 
respected;" "A walk in the fields is pleasant ; " "A desire 
to learn is to be encouraged." 

(4) An adjective clause; as, "John, who is a car- 
penter, made this box." 

(5) A shortened adjective clause, called a noun 
in apposition ; as, " John, the carpenter, made this box ;" 
" William the Conqueror." 

Participles, whether they come before or after the 
noun, are adjectives ; as, "Rolling stones gather no moss," 
or, "Stones, rolling continually, gather no moss." 

§ 29. An Enlargement (called by some "an At- 
tributive Adjunct ") is either an adjective or 
some word or phrase having the nature of an 
adjective. 



193 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

§ 30. Predicate, Complement, Object. — The Predi- 
cate, being that part of the sentence that makes a state- 
ment about the Subject, must therefore contain the chief 
verb of the sentence ; and we have seen that when the 
Predicate is a single word it is a verb; as, "Winds 
blow" " The sun shines" 

§ 31. Verbs which do not convey a complete sense by 
themselves (see §§ 24, 25) form a Predicate by the aid of 
other words, which when thus used are called the Com- 
plement of the verb. 

When the Predicate is made up of a verb of incom- 
plete predication with a Complement, it is called 
Complex; as, "The streets are wet;" "The confusion 
became terrific" 

The Complement need not be a single word; it may 
be a noun or an infinitive with any of the enlargements 
enumerated above (§ 28). 

The verb has its Complement where it requires an 
infinitive mood to follow it; as in "I did not think to shed 
a tear;" "What conscience dictates to be done" 

§ 32. When the Predicate Verb is transitive, it has an 
Object. The Object is really part of the Predicate ; but 
inasmuch as it is oftenest a noun, and is open to all the 
equivalents and enlargements of the noun as Subject, it 
is for convenience' sake taken separately. 

§33. The Object may be either Direct or Indirect. 
Both are often combined in the same sentence; as, "Give 
vie the daggers;" ''Heat me these irons hot." 

The Indirect Object may be indicated either by a simple 
Dative or by the preposition to or for; as, "Give me (Ind. 
Obj.) the daggers" (Direct Obj.); or "Give the daggers 
(Direct Obj.) to me" (Ind. Obj). 

Some verbs have two Direct Objects ; as, " They made 
him a king" 

The enlargements of the noun as Object are the 
same as the enlargements of the noun as Subject: namely, 
an Adjective, a Possessive, an Adjective Phrase, an Ad- 
jective Clause, a Noun in apposition. 

§ 34. Extensions. — Extension (called by some Ad- 
verbial Adjunct) is applied to all words and phrases 
which attach themselves to the Predicate. An extension 
is therefore either an Adverb or some word or phrase par- 
taking of the nature of an Adverb ; as, " Iser rolls rapidly;" 
"The army fled in a panic;" "He played the tyrant 
without remorse" 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 199 

The Adverbial Phrase may be: — 

(1) A noun; as, "He slept an hour-" "Wait a moment;" 
" He leaps a yard" 

(2) A preposition and noun; as, "You lived ivithout 
virtue;" " We should profit by experience" 

(3) A noun qualified by some adjunct; as,- "He rested 
a few minutes;" "He struck his antagonist a heavy blow" 

(4) A participle or a participial phrase; as, "He 
advanced trembling ;" " Toiling, rejoicing, sorrowing y on- 
ward through life he goes." 

(5) An infinitive ; as, " He is very foolish to take such a 
thing to heart" (infinitive with preposition). 

In such sentences as, " The night coming on, we retraced 
our steps," the participial phrase is said to be in the 
Nominative Absolute. 

In such sentences as, " He was wonderfully active, con- 
sidering his age" where the Participle neither refers to 
the Subject of the verb, nor has a Subject of its own, it 
is said to be used impersonally. Only a few participles, 
such as "granting," "considering," " allowing," are used 
in this way. 

Except in these cases, a participial phrase, standing 
at the beginning of a sentence, qualifies either the Subject 
or the Predicate of the sentence. This is not always 
attended to. In the sentence, "Meeting him the other 
day, he asked me," the participial phrase is designed 
to apply to "me" but from its position it must be read as 
applying to "he" Such constructions should be guarded 
against. 

The Extensions are nothing else than adverbial ad- 
juncts or qualifications of the Predicate, and they may 
be put into the same classes as adverbs, according as they 
mark the when, where, how, and why of the Predicate. 

Analysis of Simple Sentences. 
§ 35. In analyzing Simple Sentences the manner of 
proceeding is as follows: — 

1. Set down the Subject of the Sentence. 

2. Set down the Enlargement, or attributive adjuncts, 
of the Subject. 

3. Give the Predicate verb. If this is a verb of In- 
complete Predication, state the Complement also. 

4. When the Predicate is a transitive verb, state the 
Object. 

5. Set down the Enlargement, or attributive adjuncts, 
of the Object. 



200 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 



6. Give the Extensions (adverbial adjuncts) of the 
Predicate. 

For the sake of clearness the Analysis of Sentences 
is usually presented in a tabular form, though there are 
other modes of exhibiting it. The following may serve 
as examples of the mode of exhibiting the Analysis of 
Simple Sentences 2— 

1. "By sunrise we all assembled in our common apart- 
ment." 



Subject. 


Enlargement of 
Subject. 


Predicate. 


Extensions. 


We 


all 


assembled 


(1.) by sunrise 
(2.) in our com- 
mon apart- 
ment. 



2. "His harp, his sole remaining joy, 
Was carried by an orphan boy." 



Subject. 


Enlargements of 
Subject. 


Predicate. 


Extension. 


Harp 


(1.) his 

(2.) his sole re- 
maining joy 


was carried 


by an orphan 
boy. 



3. "At a small distance from the house, my predecessor 
had made a seat overshadowed by a hedge of hawthorn 
and honeysuckle." 



Subject. 


Enlargement 
of Subject. 


Predi- 
cate. 


Ob- 
ject. 

a 
seat 


Enlargement 
of Object. 


Extension. 


Prede- 
cessor 


my 


had 
made 


over- 
shadowed 
by a hedge 
of hawthorn 
and honey- 
suckle. 


at a small 

distance 

from the 

house. 



Same Sentence: Simple Scheme. 



Subject with en- 
largement. 


Predicate. 


Object with enlarge- 
ment. 


Extension. 


My predecessor 


had made 


a seat overshadowed 
by a hedge of haw- 
thorn and honey- 
suckle 


at a small dis- 
tance from 
the house. 



4. " It was my constant rule in life never to avoid the 
conversation of any man." 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 



201 



Subject (Phrase.) 


Predicate. 


Nevei to avoid the conversa- 
tion of any man 


was my constant rule in life. 
[ivas, Verb of incomplete 
predication.] 



N. B. — Here the word it disappears in analysis, being only a locum 
tenens (one holding the place, — a substitute) for the real Subject. 
So likewise there in No. 5. 

The real Subject in No. 4 may be ascertained by putting 
the question, What was my constant rule . . . ? — Answer, 
Never to avoid the conversation of any man. 

5. " There is no place like home." 



Subject. 


Enlargement of Subject. 


Predicate. 


Place 


no 


is like home. [?'s, Verb 
of incomplete pre- 
dication.] 



6. " The courageous dwarf dealt one of the champions 
a most angry blow." 



Subject. 


Enlargement 
of Subject. 


Predicate. 


Objects. 


Enlargement 
of Object. 


Dwarf 


(1) The 

(2) coura- 
geous 


dealt 


(1) a blow [Direct 
Object.] 

(2) one of the 
champions [In- 
direct Object.] 


most angry 



7. " The curfew tolls the knell of parting day." 



Subject. 


Enlargement of 
Subject. 


Predicate. 


Object. 


Enlargements of 
Object. 


Curfew 


The 


tolls 


knell 


(1) the 

(2) of parting day 



8. " But me, scarce hoping to attain that rest, 

Always from port withheld, always distressed, — 
The howling winds drive devious, — tempest-tossed, 
Sails rent, seams opening wide, and compass lost." 

Cowper. 



202 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 



Subject. 


Enlargement 
of Subject. 


Predicate. 


Object. 


Enlargements 
of Object. 


Extensions 

of 
Predicate. 


Winds 


howling 


drive 


me 


(1) devious 

(2) tempest- 
tossed 

(3) scarce 
hoping to 
attain that 
rest 

(4) always 
from port 
withheld 

(5) always 
distressed 


(1) sails 
rent 

(2) seams 
opening 
wide 

(3) com- 
pass lost 

[Nomina- 
tivesAb- 
solute.] 



Compound, Co-ordinate, Contracted and 
Elliptical Sentences. 

§ 36. We have seen that when a sentence contains only- 
one Subject and one finite verb (i. e., a verb not in the 
infinitive mood), it is called a Simple Sentence. Two 
simple sentences may be united together by a co-ordinate 
conjunction (i. e., one of the conjunctions and, either, or, 
neither, nor, but), joining two independent sentences to 
form a Compound. Sentence ; as, "Birds fly and fish 
swim." 

Each member of the Compound Sentence makes com- 
plete sense by itself, and neither depends upon the other 
for its meaning. The second member of a co-ordinate 
sentence is said to be co-ordinate with the first. 

When two or more distinct statements (Simple 
Sentences), not dependent upon each other, are 
brought together by means of and, or, nor, etc., 
they are said to be Co-ordinate, and are analyzed 
as simple sentences. 

Examples: — (1) "My orchard was often robbed by 
schoolboys, and my wife's custards plundered by the cats." 

Analyze : — 1. My orchard was often robbed by school- 
boys. 2. My wife's custards were often plundered by the 
cats. 

(2) " The giant and the dwarf were friends and kept 
together." 

Analyze: — 1. The giant and the dwarf were friends. 
2. The giant and the dwarf kept together. 

(3) "They were all very joyful at this victory, and 
the damsel fell in love with the giant, and married him. ,, 

Analyze : — 1. They were all very joyful at this victory. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 203 

2. The damsel fell in love with the giant. 3. The damsel 
married him (the giant). 

(4) " We had no revolutions to fear, nor fatigues to 
undergo." 

Analyze : — 1. We had no revolutions to fear., 2. We 
had no fatigues to undergo. 

Sentences in which the repetition of Subject or Predi- 
cate is avoided by the use of a Conjunction are called 
Contracted Sentences. Thus, " John returned home 
yesterday and James returned home yesterday" = " John 
and James returned home yesterday." The latter is a 
contracted sentence. 

Sometimes the word and has rather the force of a pre- 
position than of a conjunction; and then the nouns 
connected by it must be treated as the conjoint Subject or 
Object This is the case in such sentences as the follow- 
ing : — "Bread and butter is wholesome fare ;" " Two and 
two are four;" "Copper, zinc, and calamine-stone form 
brass ;" " The book costs two and sixpence." 

An Elliptical Sentence is one in which something is 
omitted which is essential to the complete construction of 
the sentence, but which is readily supplied in thought, 
without being expressed in words. 

Contracted Sentences are one variety of Elliptical 
Sentences, in which what is common to two or more co- 
ordinate sentences is expressed only once. In the sentences 
now to be considered, that which is omitted is not common 
to two or more clauses. 

§ 37. Relative pronouns and relative adverbs are 
sometimes omitted. 

Examples of Elliptical Sentences. 

1. " That is the book I gave you." In full— " That is 
the book which I gave you." 

2. " That is the way I came." In full—" That is the 
way which (or by which) I came." (Here the which or by 
which will be in the adverbial relation to the verb 
came.) 

3. " He left the day I arrived." In full—" He left the 
day that (or on which) I arrived." (Here the day is in 
the adverbial relation to left ; that (or on which) is in the 
adverbial relation to arrived; and the dependent clause 
that I arrived is an Adjective Clause qualifying day.) 

4. " He is as tall as I am." In full — " He is as tall as 
I am tail" 

5. " He is more industrious than clever." In full — " He 



204 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

is more industrious than he is clever." Here the Ad- 
verbial Clause than he is clever qualifies the adverb more. 
6. " He has not written so much as I have." In full — 
" He has not written so much as I have written much." 

Analysis of Complex Sentences. 

§ 38. A Complex Sentence, while containing but one 
principal Subject and one principal Predicate, has two or 
more finite verbs ; as, " What can't be cured must be en- 
dured ;" " If thy heart fail thee, do not climb at all." 

The part containing the principal Subject and Predicate 
is called the Principal Clause; the other part, the 
Subordinate Clause or Clauses; as, "do not climb at 
all" (principal), "if thy heart fail thee" (subordinate). 

The Subordinate Clauses which may enter into the 
construction of a Complex Sentence are of three kinds : — 
1. Substantive Clauses; [2. Adjective Clauses; 3. Ad- 
verbial Clauses. 

In the sentence, " That the man has abilities is not to 
be denied," the clause " that the man has abilities " is the 
Subject, and serves the function of a noun. Such clauses 
are called Substantive Clauses.* 

In the sentence, "The man that brought the letter is at 
the door," the clause " that brought the letter" qualifies 
or restricts " man," and so serves as an Adjective. 

In the sentence, "He was gone before I arrived," the 
clause "before I arrived" indicates the time of the action, 
and so serves the function of an Adverb. 

§39. Clauses are thus distinguished into Sub- 
stantive Clauses, Adjective Clauses, and Adverbial 
Clauses, according to the Part of Speech that they 
represent. (See \ 16.) 

§40. The Substantive Clause. — The Substantive 
Clause occupies the place of the noun, and may be the 
Subject or the Object of the Principal Clause, as, " That 
fortune favors the brave is a cheering maxim ;" " I heard 
that a battle had been fought ;" " I have said what I have said." 

The Substantive Clause may also, like the noun, be 
used to complete a Predicate; as, "The result was that he 
left the country." 

§ 41. In such sentences as, "The fact that man's powers 
are limited is not sufficiently recognized," the Substan- 
tive Clause is in apposition to the noun (( fact." 

♦Also called, by some, "Noun Clauses." Substantives comprehend 
(1} Nouns : (2) The Substantive Pronoun; (3) The Infinitive Mood ; (4; Ger- 
unds, or Verbal Nouns ; (5) A Substantive Clause. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 205 

In "It is hard that a man cannot enjoy the fruits of his 
own industry" the Substantive Clause is in apposi- 
tion to "it." 

§ 42. The words used to introduce Substantive Clauses 
are, that, what, when, whence, how, why, &c. ; as, " We know 
what we are, but we know not what we shall be;"- " Let me 
know when you can come;" " I will find out whence you derive 
that idea ;" "How far I have succeeded is for you to j udge ;" 
" Why he left so suddenly, we could never understand." 

§ 43. The conjunction " that" is frequently omitted 
before a Substantive Clause standing as Object ; as, " I 
said in my haste, All men are liars;" "Tell me not in 
mournful numbers, Life is but an empty dream" 

§ 44. The Adjective Clause. — When a clause limits, 
defines, or adds to the meaning of a noun, the clause is 
of the nature of an adjective; as, "I venerate the man 
whose heart is warm" (the warm-hearted man) ; " Thoughts 
that breathe and words that burn" 

An Adjective Clause may be found in any place of 
the sentence where a noun may occur for an adjective to 
qualify : — • 

1. It may be found with the Subject; as, "Happy is 
the man that findeth wisdom;" "Every plague that can 
infest society is found there ;" "All the vices that oppression 
generates, flourished in the unhappy country." 

2. It may be found with the Object ; as, " I see the 
golden helmet that shines far off like flame ;" " Teach me 
the way wherein to walk." 

3. It may be found in Adverbial Adjuncts; as, "We 
are not bound by promises that have been extorted by 
violence;" "Some excuse seems necessary for the pain 
that we occasion to brutes" 

Adjective Clauses may be restrictive (having a limiting 
effect), or they may be co-ordinate. 

For introducing restrictive adjective clauses, the 
relative that and its equivalents are preferable to who 
or which and their equivalents. Thus/' The man that 
brought the letter," is preferable to " the man who brought 
the letter." 

For introducing co-ordinate clauses, the proper 
relatives are who, which, and their equivalents; as, "The 
mail-train, which usually is so punctual, was late yester- 
day." To use "that" would imply that there are several 
mail-trains, and that one of them is specially punctual. 

§ 45. The Adverbial Clause. — An Adverbial 



206 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

Clause is the equivalent of an adverb; as, "Meet me 
when the clock strikes one" 

Adverbial Clauses may be divided into as many 
classes as adverbs, and, like them, may qualify verbs, 
adjectives, or other adverbs. Usually, however, an 
Adverbial Clause attaches itself to the Predicate. 

In the sentence, " He was waiting a letter when I 
arrived," the Adverbial Clause " when I arrived " indi- 
cates the time at which the action, expressed by the verb 
" was writing" took place. The Clause " when I arrived " 
is in the adverbial relation to the verb " was writing" 

In the sentence, " Tears such as angels weep burst forth, " 
the Adverbial Clause "as angels weep" attaches itself 
to the adjective "such" 

In the sentence, " The picture was so very large that 
we had no place in the house to fix it," the Adverbial 
Clause "that we had no place in the house to fix it" 
attaches itself to the adverb "so" 

The Adverbial Clause may be contracted by omitting 
the verb, or by changing it into a participle; as, "I will 
not give way until / am compelled by the infirmities of 
age." Here "I am " may be omitted. In "As we walked 
by the side of the river, we met a very strange fellow," 
"as we walked " may be changed to " walking." 

§ 46. The different kinds of Clauses may have the 
same, or nearly the same, form ; so that they can be 
accurately distinguished only by considering their func- 
tion in the sentence. 

Thus in (1) " He behaved so badly that he was dis- 
missed" the italicized words form an Adverbial Clause. 

In (2) " Some one told me that he was dismissed," the 
italicized words form a Substantive Clause. 

In (3) " The man that was dismissed called to see us," 
the italicized words form an Adjective Clause. 

§ 47. Complex Sentences are to be analyzed in the 
first instance as if each Subordinate Clause were a 
single word or phrase. The Subordinate Clauses are then 
to be analyzed separately. 

We mark the principal Subject and Predicate, arrange 
under each the Subordinate Clauses which modify or 
enlarge them, and then analyze all in order. 

Examples of the Analysis of Complex Sentences. 

1. " The unfortunate man had just heard that he had 
lost all his property." 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 207 



Subject "man" 

Enlargements of Subject . . . J^ „ unfortunate" 
Predicate "had heard" 

r\i • ± re z j 2- m \ ("that he had lost all 

Object (Substantive Clause) . . j hig property » 

Extension "just" 

ANALYSIS OF SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSE. 

Subject "he" 

Predicate "had lost" 

Object "property" 

Enlargements of Object . . . < \<J «h # " 

2. " We went out to play when we had finished our task." 
Subject " we." 

Predicate ... " went." 

r(i)"out" 

Extensions . . . < (2) " to play" 

(^ (3) Adverbial Clause, " when we 
had finished our task." 

ANALYSIS OF ADVERBIAL CLAUSE. 

Subject "we" 

Predicate " had finished" 

Object "task" 

Enlargement of Object ... " our" 
Extension (Adverbial Adjunct) " when" 

3. " Mark, now, how a plain tale shall put you down." 

Subject " you ," understood. 

Predicate " mark." 

qi'x ( "how a plain tale shall put you 

9 ( down" (Substantive Clause.) 

Extension "now." 

Analyze now the Substantive Clause. 

4. " The hope that I shall be successful sustains me." 
Here the Substantive Clause " that I shall be suc- 
cessful" is an enlargement of the Subject " hope." 

5. " There was a report that you were dead." 

Here the Subject is " report ;" the enlargements of the 
Subject are (1) "a," (2) the Substantive Clause "that 
you were dead ;" the Predicate is " was ;" and the Exten- 
sion, or adverbial adjunct, of the Predicate is " there." 

6. "Give me that large book that you have in your 
hand." 

Here the Adjective Clause " that you have in your 



208 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

hand" is in the attributive relation to the Object " book." 
The relative "that" is the Object of "have." 

§ 48. Contracted Sentences. — Before a contracted 
sentence is analyzed, the parts omitted must be expressed 
at full length; as: — 

" We perceive that these things not only did not happen, 
but could not have happened." In full — (A) " We per- 
ceive that these things not only did not happen." (B) 
" We perceive that these things could not have happened." 

When the co-ordinate sentences or clauses are connected 
by neither, nor, the simple negative not may be substituted 
for each in the analysis, the conjunctive portion of the 
words being omitted ; as : — 

"The man who neither reverences 1 lo ness nor loves 
goodness is hateful." In full — (A) xne man who 
reverences not nobleness is hateful." (B) "The man 
who loves not goodness is hateful." 

§ 49. Simple Sentences for Analysis. 

1. Not a drum ^as heard. 2. The Greeks fled towards the city. 
3. My hopes no more must change their name. 4. Her home is 
on the deep. 5. Britannia needs no bulwark. 

§ 50. Complex Sentences for Analysis. 

1. I often think of the night which I spent with you. 2. I 
believe that he is honest. 3. He started when he heard the news. 

§ 51. Write out the following sentences, and draw one 
line under the verb of incomplete predication in each, 
and two lines under the complement of the Predicate. 
Show also whether the complement relates to the Sub' 
ject or to the Object of the verb : — 

1. He grew rich suddenly. 2. They became very poor. 3. He 
is honest. 4. He called the man a liar. 5. That step was thought 
imprudent. 6. We consider this course expedient. 

§ S6. Underline the Substantive Clauses in the fol- 
lowing Complex Sentences: — 

1. He knows well enough that I never said so. 2. That he did 
the deed is quite certain. 3. Tell me how old you are. 4. Do you 
know when they set out? 5. It is not true that he was sick. 

§ 53. Underline the Adjective Clauses in the follow- 
ing Complex Sentences: — 

1. The book which I lent him was torn in pieces. 2. The reason 
why you cannot succeed is evident. 3. Show me the book which 
you have in your hand. 4. Who steals my purse, steals trash. 
§ 54. Underline the Adverbial Clauses in the follow- 
ing examples, and then analyze each sentence: — ^ 

1. I will tell you the secret when I see you. 2. He is happy 
because he is contented. 3. I could not see him, for he was not at 
home. 4. He will go to ruin unless he alters his conduct. 

£ RD-64 







^ © M O 



'^c, 



** v \ 




Q 














cp urv o 

^ * ° " ° ° A *> * • ' \ ' Deacidified using the Bookkeeper proce 

O sy * « * o ^ Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 

^ ** ^J^&^Al* ^ Treatment Date: Oct. 2006 

\j? ! tf%° x *2f£* PreservationTechnologie 

** A^ ^ ^It&Utt* rV ^ A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATIO 




'.* 6 V 



A 1 * *\*5$^v 



* % *>/tf?^ • 



1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive 
Cranberry Township, PA 16066 
(724) 779-21 1 1 














4> - 






S • • 









-.,1* ^ O * „o' .0 




. • * 



o ** o 



> * 



c 



^ 



008BSBR0S..NC. / f . . , %'' '' f° , . o< V 



8' 

ST. AUGUSTINE 

^IkFLA. 



W 



5? «fc 



• . « 






32084 



A ' °^ 



» i 



